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教会史と宗教改革

教会の歴史 — パート 4: 良心の自由を取り戻すまでの 3 世紀 (1517–1800)

注記: この部分は、デイビッド・ポーソンの教会史シリーズに含まれる三つの別々の講義を扱います。16世紀(54.9分、「改革者、ローマ人、急進派」)、17世紀(47.7分、「信仰の自由を求めるイギリスの戦い」)、18世紀(54.9分、「福音主義復興」)です。これらを一つのエッセイにまとめたのは、国家によって強制された宗教の代償と、良心の自由への長く険しい道のり…

4 分で読めます以下でも利用可能です: 英語ベトナム語英語英語英語英語英語英語英語英語

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教会の歴史 — パート 4: 良心の自由を取り戻すまでの 3 世紀 (1517–1800)

パラレル

ベトナム語 · 英語

ベトナム語教会の歴史 — パート 4: 良心の自由を取り戻すまでの 3 世紀 (1517–1800)

注記: この部分は、デイビッド・ポーソンの教会史シリーズに含まれる三つの別々の講義を扱います。16世紀(54.9分、「改革者、ローマ人、急進派」)、17世紀(47.7分、「信仰の自由を求めるイギリスの戦い」)、18世紀(54.9分、「福音主義復興」)です。これらを一つのエッセイにまとめたのは、国家によって強制された宗教の代償と、良心の自由への長く険しい道のりという、三つの講義に通じる一つの途切れない物語を語っているからです。私はポーソンの議論を推測したり粉飾したりしていません。何かを調べたり、出典と照合したり、詳細を修正したりした場合は、常にそのことを明記しています。琥珀色の余白メモが本文に織り込まれています。今回の事実確認は、最初の三部より重いものです。この一連の歴史には、シリーズの他のどの歴史よりも多くの名前、日付、数字が含まれており、再話のたびに説教壇の伝説が余分な色を帯びる可能性も最も高いからです。

ヴィッテンベルクからウェスリー家のパーラーまで

第 3 パートは、マルティン・ルーサーが帝国と教会の前に立ち、「私はここに立っている、他には何もできない」と宣言して終わりました。しかし宣言だけで改革が完了したわけではない。ポーソン氏は次の講義の冒頭で、簡単に聞こえる質問をします。 宗教改革と革命の違いは何ですか?

答えは二つの別の質問にあります。どれだけ変更されたのか、そして誰が変更したのかです。16世紀を通じて、ルターの宗教改革は広まるにつれ、徐々に革命になりました。ますます多くのことが変えられ、ますます多くの人々が、ますます多くの場所で、自分たちのやり方に変えようと取り組んだからです。

この作品の 3 世紀は、連続した 1 つの物語を語ります。 教会は国家に「捕らえられ」続けた。国王、議会、市議会は世俗的な権力を利用して、領土全体に 1 つの宗教を押し付けました。 その代償はいつも戦争、刑務所、あるいは冷めた霊的生活だった。この 3 世紀は、自分たちの信仰を国家に決定させることを拒否し、その代償として高いお金を払った人々の物語でもあります。

講義全体の枠組み

16世紀の三つのR

パウソンはまず、宗教改革と革命の違いは何かと問う。答えは二つの別の問いにある。どれほど変わったのか、そして誰が変えたのか。ルターの宗教改革は広がるにつれ革命となった。変化が増え、変化を担う人々もますます多様になったからである。

改革者たち

ルター、ツヴィングリ、カルヴァン、ノックス、クランマー

内部から改革したが、領土全体に変化を強制するため君主や都市参事会に頼った。土地を支配する者がその宗教を決めた。

ローマ側

ロヨラ、トリエント公会議、異端審問

立ち止まらなかった。イエズス会、教義を言い直した公会議、復活した異端審問という三つの力が、60年後にプロテスタントの潮流を止めた。

急進派

グレーベル、マンツ、メンノ・シモンズ、フッター

最も急進的な問いは、誰が改革を行うべきか。答えは国家ではない。国家から分離した自発的な教会であり、ローマと改革者の双方から迫害された。


ポーソンはその夜を「3 つの R」という 3 つのグループに分けます。 改革者ローマ人 (カトリック教会の反応)そして ラジカル (ポーソン自身の教会であるゴールドヒルのグループは、実際にはその子孫です)。彼は、ドイツ、スイス、そしてイギリスの 3 か国の宗教改革者を調査します。

第一部:16世紀:改革者、ローマ人、急進派

ドイツ:マルティン・ルターと途中で立ち止まった男

ドイツを変えたのは誰でしょうか。明らかにマルティン・ルターです。どの程度変えたのでしょう。ポーソンは「最初の4、5年は、かなりの変化をもたらした」と答えます。ルターは教皇、司教、免罪符、煉獄などを退け、秘跡も七つから二つへ減らしました。

その後、危機が訪れます。ルターはヴァルトブルク城に身を隠さなければなりませんでした。戻ってみると、友人たちが自分の意図よりも、はるかに急速かつ急進的に改革を進めていることに気づきます。ルターは説教壇から「なぜそんなことをするのか」と問いかけ、その時点から、物事をほとんど変えなくなりました。

その結果、ルターはローマ教会の多くを残しました。聖書に根拠が明記されていない祭壇のろうそくも、十字架も、画像も残したため、ルーテル教会では今日もそれらを目にします。何より、主の晩餐と洗礼を中心とする伝統的な実践を守り続けました。パンとワインが、ある意味で本当にキリストの体と血であるという理解を完全には捨てられなかったのです。幼児洗礼も続けました。誰かが「洗礼には信仰が必要でしょう。赤ん坊に信仰がないと、誰が言えるでしょうか」と尋ねたとき、彼はこう答えました。

誰がその変化を実行したのでしょうか。驚くべき答えは、ルターが諸侯を頼ったということです。言い換えれば、国家主導の改革でした。ルター派はローマ・カトリックと同じく、領邦の公的宗教になりました。ルターは当初から、諸侯や公爵、とりわけザクセン選帝侯フリードリヒに頼り、「上から」改革を進めました。土地を統治する者が、その土地の教会も統治したのです。

その結果、シュパイヤーの帝国議会では、各領邦がその領主の宗教を採用することになりました。領主がカトリックなら住民もカトリック、領主がルター派なら住民もルター派です。ある一団がこの決定に正式に抗議し、その「抗議」からプロテスタントという呼び名が生まれました。

この教会と国家の融合の結果、17世紀初頭までに、カトリック諸国は結束し、同じく結束した有名なプロテスタント諸国と戦争を始めました。三十年戦争です。両側の国が「全員この宗教でなければならない」と言えば、遅かれ早かれ宗教戦争になります。このパターンはドイツからデンマーク、スウェーデン、ノルウェーへ広がり、いずれもルター派を国教として全住民に課しました。

Kitの注記

ルターが秘跡の数を七つから二つに減らしたのは事実です。しかし、七つの秘跡は、ルターが離れようとしていたローマだけの「発明」ではありません。それは、 宗教改革以前の教会全体が、東西を問わず共有していた理解 でした。七つとは、洗礼、堅信、聖餐、告解、婚姻、叙階、病者の塗油です。秘跡を二つだけとしたルターの転換は、「ローマ」だけでなく、古代教会全体との断絶でした。

主の晩餐をめぐる論争は、西方だけのものではありませんでした。1573〜1581年頃、テュービンゲンのルター派神学者たちは共通点を探り、ギリシャ語に訳したアウグスブルク信仰告白をコンスタンティノープル総主教エレミアス2世に送りました。総主教は神学的に慎重な三通の手紙で返答し、いくつかの点には同意したものの、恵み、秘跡、聖書解釈における教父の権威について、ルター派の中核的立場を退けました。最後に彼はこう書きました。「自分の道を進みなさい。教義についてこれ以上手紙を送らず、友情のための手紙だけを送りなさい。」 宗教改革は確かに東方へ届きましたが、正教会独自の条件のもとで拒まれたのです。

ドイツ語で一般の人々の手に神の言葉を戻し、「正しい者は信仰によって生きる」と肯定したマルティン・ルターの肖像。
ドイツ語で一般の人々の手に神の言葉を戻し、「正しい者は信仰によって生きる」と肯定したマルティン・ルターの肖像。ルーカス・クラナッハ(父)、1529年。パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons。
ルターがヴォルムス帝国議会後に身を隠し、約11週間で新約聖書をドイツ語に訳したヴァルトブルク城。彼はその後ヴィッテンベルクへ戻り、自分に先行した改革に歯止めをかけた。
ルターがヴォルムス帝国議会後に身を隠し、約11週間で新約聖書をドイツ語に訳したヴァルトブルク城。彼はその後ヴィッテンベルクへ戻り、自分に先行した改革に歯止めをかけた。現代写真、ヴァルトブルク(アイゼナハ). パブリックドメイン/CC、Wikimedia Commons.

スイス:戦場で亡くなったツヴィングリと、一晩滞在して結局20年間滞在したカルヴァン

ルターはスイスの宗教改革を始めたわけでも、助けたわけでもありません。そこでは、ドイツ語圏のスイス人とフランス人という二人の人物が、独自に改革を始めました。

フルドリッヒ・ツヴィングリは、スイスのドイツ語圏にある小さな村のカトリック教会で働く、普通の教区司祭でした。ギリシャ語の新約聖書を読み、プロテスタントになったのです。これは数年後にマルティン・ルターに起きたことと同じですが、ツヴィングリのほうが先でした。彼は司祭としてチューリヒ大聖堂(グロスミュンスター)に招かれ、この書物から見いだした新しい真理を説き、チューリヒの町をともに揺り動かしました。

彼が教えたことの一つは、教皇がスイスの傭兵部隊を配置した軍隊を持つのは間違っているということだった。 (興味深いことに、現在バチカンを訪れると、今でもスイス衛兵がバチカンを守っているのを見ることができます。これはツヴィングリが反対した慣行そのものです。)彼は教皇への忠誠を捨てて結婚しましたが、この二つはしばしば一緒に起きるようです。他の多くの司祭も彼に従いました。

彼はついに市議会を説得しました。ところが、その結果チューリヒの住民は全員プロテスタントでなければならなくなりました。また同じ悲しい失敗です。それでも改革は実行され、チューリヒと周辺の谷々は正式にプロテスタントになりました。山や森の住民は従わず、やがて谷の民と山の民が争い始めます。チューリヒ地方では二年間続く戦争が起こり、その最中にツヴィングリ自身も、カッペルという小さな場所で戦死しました。

ツヴィングリは亡くなる前に、主の晩餐をめぐってルターと大きな論争を起こしました。ルターは、「パンは体であり、ワインはキリストの血である」と言いました。ツヴィングリは、「それはただのパンであり、ただのワインであり、彼の体と血の象徴だ」と語った。そしてポーソン氏は、おそらくそれが、ドイツ人とスイス人が宗教改革で決して団結しなかった理由だと考察する。

物語はフランスへ移ります。若いジョン・カルヴァンはピカルディで弁護士の息子として生まれ、父親に法律を学ばされました。パリ、オルレアン、ブールジュの大学で学び、そこで鋭い論理的思考を身につけます。話し方、思考の明晰さ、切れ味のある議論において、彼は死ぬまで弁護士であり続けました。その議論が、多くの人を「カルヴァン主義者」にしたのです。

カルヴァンはパリに来て、ギリシャ語の新約聖書を学び、改宗しました (1532–34 頃)。数か月以内に、彼はキリスト教的見解を理由にパリで投獄されました。釈放された彼は難民として逃亡し、各地を放浪した。

彼はスイスの都市バーゼルにたどり着き、26歳のときにキリスト教信仰をまとめることにしました。その著書『キリスト教綱要』は、プロテスタント信仰を解説する最も偉大な書物の一つとして評価され、今日も読まれています。

彼は日曜日の朝に教会に行き、日曜日の午後にはボウルズをすることを勧めました。彼自身もそれを実践しました。私たちは「大陸の日曜日」をカルヴァンに負っている(あるいは責める)ことになります。しかし、もっと深い点が重要でした。この人は、神が王座に就いていると信じていました。神の主権、つまり神の意志が国家と人間の歴史を決める最終的な要因であることを信じていたのです。神の主権と予定説をこのように論理的に強調したからこそ、カルヴァンはそのように考える人々に自分の名を与えました。カルヴァン主義者です。しかし、カルヴァンだけでなく、ルターもツヴィングリも、すべての宗教改革者も同じことを信じていました。神は王座に就き、あらゆるものとすべての人を絶対的に支配しておられる、と。

カルヴァンは難民として各地を逃れていました。ある日フランスへ戻ろうとしたところ、進路上で小さな戦争が起きていたため迂回し、夕方までに目的地へ着けなくなりました。その夜たどり着いた場所がジュネーブです。一晩だけ泊まるつもりだったのに、彼はそこに20年間とどまり、ジュネーブは世界の長老派運動の中心になりました。

この若い著者カルヴァンがジュネーブにいると知ると、地元の教区司祭ウィリアム・ファレルが急いで宿を訪ね、「カルヴァン、ここにいてほしい」と言いました。彼はこう語りました。一年前、評議会はジュネーブをプロテスタントの都市にすると決めた。しかしうまくいかず、人々は相変わらず酔い、賭け事に夢中で、何も変わっていない。私たちにはあなたのような人が必要だ。ここに残ってほしい。そしてカルヴァンも同意しました。

カルヴァンはかなり厳格でした。騒ぎを見逃さず、人を教会の前に呼び出してから、さまざまな罪で治安当局に引き渡しました。ただし、ここでいう「都市」の人口はわずか13,000人です。彼は厳しい規律で町を立て直しましたが、そのために憎まれ、三年後には命からがらストラスブールへ逃れなければなりませんでした。彼が去ると町は崩れ、事態はさらに悪化しました。やがて議員たちが彼を呼び戻し、カルヴァンはさらに20年間そこにとどまりました。

彼は今回、さらに改革を進めました。十字架はなく、ろうそくもなく、あえて言えばオルガンもありません。人々は自分で歌わなければなりません。彼はマルティン・ルターがそれまでに行った以上に改革を進め、今日私たちが知る長老派教会の仕組みを整えました。教会は信徒、牧師、長老の団体によって統治され、地方の教会は、より広い地域を監督する代表集会に集まります。

ジュネーブはプロテスタントの避難所となり、迫害を逃れた6,000人以上がそこに住むようになりました。彼らはカルヴァンの信仰と教会運営の方法を学び、安全に帰国できるようになると、その教えを携えてヨーロッパ各地へ戻りました。

しかし、付け加えておく価値があるのは、カルヴァンは教会と国家を融合させるという同じ間違いを逆に犯したということです。今回だけ彼は国家が教会を統治しなければならないとは言わなかった。彼は教会が国家を統治しなければならないと述べた。教会員が不正行為をした場合、カルヴィンは市の治安判事が対処してくれると期待していた。またしても教会と国家は混乱した。ジュネーブでは戦争には至らなかったが、他の地域では戦争が起きた。

その影響はジュネーブからフランスにも伝わりました。

フルドリッヒ・ツヴィングリ(1484—1531)、チューリヒのスイス改革者。主の晩餐を記念の象徴とし、マールブルクでルターと分裂した。
フルドリッヒ・ツヴィングリ(1484—1531)、チューリヒのスイス改革者。主の晩餐を記念の象徴とし、マールブルクでルターと分裂した。ハンス・アスペル、1531. パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.
ツヴィングリが説教し「街を自分と共に動かした」チューリヒのグロスミュンスター。しかしチューリヒをプロテスタントにしたのは民衆投票ではなく市参事会だった。
ツヴィングリが説教し「街を自分と共に動かした」チューリヒのグロスミュンスター。しかしチューリヒをプロテスタントにしたのは民衆投票ではなく市参事会だった。現代写真、チューリヒのグロスミュンスター。パブリックドメイン/CC、Wikimedia Commons。
ジャン・カルヴァン(1509—1564)、『キリスト教綱要』でプロテスタント神学を体系化し、ジュネーブを改革派の中心にしたフランス人改革者。
ジャン・カルヴァン(1509—1564)、『キリスト教綱要』でプロテスタント神学を体系化し、ジュネーブを改革派の中心にしたフランス人改革者。16世紀匿名肖像(ジュネーブ図書館). パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.
1559年ラテン語版『キリスト教綱要』の扉頁。カルヴァンが26歳で一気に書いた600頁の本ではなく、20年以上にわたる5度の改訂を経た成熟版である。
1559年ラテン語版『キリスト教綱要』の扉頁。カルヴァンが26歳で一気に書いた600頁の本ではなく、20年以上にわたる5度の改訂を経た成熟版である。ラテン語版、ジュネーブ、1559年. パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.

フランス:ユグノー、スコットランド:ジョン・ノックス

フランスのプロテスタントはルターよりもカルヴァンに近く、ユグノーとして知られるようになりました。カルヴァンが活動を始めたフランス王の治世の終わりまでに、フランスにはすでに約2万人のユグノーがいました。彼らは増え続けましたが、1572年8月24日、恐ろしい聖バルテルミーの虐殺が起こりました。歴史を知っているなら、その日におよそ22,000人のフランス人ユグノーが虐殺され、パリだけでも2,000人が殺されたことをご存じでしょう。フランス全土で次々に人々が処刑されました。ユグノーはイングランドやオランダへ逃れました。フランス風の姓を持つ家族に出会えば、その先祖がユグノーの逃亡者とともに来た可能性があります。今夜この教会にも、聖バルテルミーの虐殺から逃れた人々の子孫がいるかもしれません。

しかし、ジュネーブから最も大きな影響を受けた国は、古き良きスコットランドでした。スコットランド人を残念がらせてしまうので、スコットランドの歴史全体を詳しく知ることはできませんが、4人の偉大なスコットランド人について触れさせてください。

パトリック・ハミルトンは、スコットランドで宗教改革を始めた人物でしたが、1528年に火刑にされました。彼の働きを引き継いだのが、スイスに滞在していたジョージ・ウィシャートです。しかし彼も悲惨な最期を迎えました。本当に改革を仕上げたのは、ジョン・ノックスでした。

彼は多彩な人物です。グラスゴー大学の学生となり、その後スコットランド軍のセント・アンドリュース城で従軍牧師を務めました。フランス軍が城を占領し、ノックスをガレー船の奴隷として売ったため、彼は奴隷として櫂を漕ぐことになりました。イングランド人に救出されてイングランドへ来ましたが、メアリー女王と問題を起こし、大陸を経てジュネーブへ逃れ、カルヴァンのもとに身を寄せました。ノックスはこうした思想を受け入れる準備ができており、「私はスコットランドを長老派にする」と決意してスコットランドに戻ってきました。彼はかつてこう祈りました。「主よ、私にスコットランドを与えてください。さもなければ私は死にます。」

1560年、スコットランド議会はプロテスタントを支持する議決をしました。同年、最初の総会も開かれました。しかし1561年、美しく狡猾なスコットランド女王メアリーが帰国し、その美貌と狡知でプロテスタントの貴族の大半を味方につけました。こうしてスコットランド女王メアリーとジョン・ノックスは向かい合うことになりました。実に劇的な物語なので、歴史に少しでも関心があるなら、ぜひ読んでみてください。それでも内戦の後、メアリーは捕らえられ、幼い息子ジェームズに譲位し、最終的にはイングランド女王エリザベス1世によって反逆罪で処刑されました。ノックスの教えは勢力を得、以来スコットランドは長老派の国となりました。スコットランド国教会はジュネーブ教会を映し出し、イングランド国教会はルター派の諸教会に近い位置にあります。スコットランド国教会は、ジョン・ノックスにすべてを負っています。

ノックスの死後、指導者の座は、ここで最後に取り上げたい偉大なスコットランド人、アンドリュー・メルヴィルへと移りました。彼はジェームズ王にこう言いました。「陛下、スコットランドには二人の王と二つの王国があります。ジェームズ王がおり、私はその忠実な臣下です。そして教会の王である主イエス・キリストがおり、ジェームズ自身もその臣下です。」

聖バルテルミーの虐殺(1572年8月24日):数日のうちに数千人のフランス人ユグノーが殺された。国家が宗教を強制する代償を示す最も血なまぐさい例の一つである。
聖バルテルミーの虐殺(1572年8月24日):数日のうちに数千人のフランス人ユグノーが殺された。国家が宗教を強制する代償を示す最も血なまぐさい例の一つである。フランソワ・デュボワ、約1572–84. パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.
ジョン・ノックス(約1514—1572)、ジュネーブでカルヴァンから直接学び、長老派運動をスコットランドにもたらした人物。
ジョン・ノックス(約1514—1572)、ジュネーブでカルヴァンから直接学び、長老派運動をスコットランドにもたらした人物。小ウィリアム・ホールによる19世紀の版画(先行する肖像による)。パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons。
スコットランド女王メアリー。1561年に帰国し、美貌と策略でプロテスタント貴族を魅了し、ジョン・ノックスと対決した後、廃位されエリザベス1世に処刑された。
スコットランド女王メアリー。1561年に帰国し、美貌と策略でプロテスタント貴族を魅了し、ジョン・ノックスと対決した後、廃位されエリザベス1世に処刑された。作者不詳、16世紀. パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.

イングランド:「典型的な英国の混乱」ヘンリー8世からエリザベス1世まで

今、私たちは自分たちの国に戻りました。この間イギリスで何が起こったのでしょうか?ポーソンははっきりとこう言います。イギリスの宗教改革は典型的な英国の混乱でした。それはまさに典型的な妥協でした。私たちは迷って「それでいいでしょう」と言いました。私たちは原則に基づいて仕事をしません。私たちはひどく現実的です。私たちは尋ねます。それは機能するか、そして機能するものはすべて正しいと見なされます。これは非常にイギリス的であり、宗教改革はその典型です。

それはもちろん、ヘンリー8世の問題です。彼は別の女性と結婚したいと望みました。しかしこの話はひどく誤解されています。ヘンリー8世は、周囲の圧力によってアラゴンのキャサリンとの結婚に進みました。彼女は兄アーサーの未亡人だったため、その結婚は違法であり、本来ヘンリーは彼女と結婚すべきではありませんでした。それでも、教皇を含む各方面から圧力がかかり、教皇が違法な結婚をするための特別な許可を与えたため、政治的理由で結婚へ押し流されました。彼女が産んだ子どもは、後に「血まみれのメアリー」と呼ばれる娘メアリーを除いて全員が亡くなりました。テューダー家を継ぐ男子がなく、男子の後継者なしに自分が死ねば内戦になるとヘンリーは知っていました。当時のイングランドの人々の多くは、それをこの結婚に対する神の裁きのしるしと受け取りました。

その後、彼は心から愛した女性、アン・ブーリンに出会いました。彼女は良い女王となり、合法的な妻となれたかもしれません。(私はヘンリー8世を正当化しているのではなく、事実をすべてお伝えしています。)彼は最初の違法な結婚の無効を教皇に申請しましたが、そのころには政治情勢が変わり、教皇は政治的理由から拒みました。そこでヘンリー8世は言いました。「分かった。これからは教皇に従わない。」こうしてヘンリーは、イングランドが英仏海峡によって大陸から隔てられているように、段階を追ってイングランド国教会を教皇から切り離しました。

物語全体の中で最も皮肉な部分は、若い頃のヘンリー8世が素人神学者のような人物で、マルティン・ルターを批判する本を書いたため、教皇が大いに喜び、彼に「信仰の擁護者」という称号を与えたことです。これは現在も私たちの女王が保持している称号で、皆さんのポケットの硬貨にも刻まれています。彼はマルティン・ルターを攻撃したことで、その称号を得たのです。ご存じでしたか。イングランドの宗教改革とは、なんと混乱したものなのでしょう。

ヘンリーがアン・ブーリンと結婚した主な理由は、友人のトーマス・クランマーをカンタベリー大司教に任命したことにありました。クランマーは言いました。「あなたの最初の結婚は、最初から違法だったと確信しています。だから私はそれを無効にします。あなたはアン・ブーリンと結婚してよいのです。」そしてクランマーは秘密裏に結婚式を執り行いました。ヘンリーは今や教会の長であり、ローマから離れていましたが、資金にも困っていました。そのためイングランドの裕福な修道院を接収し、その土地を個人に売却しました。これによって初めてイングランドに中産階級が生まれ、それ以来社会生活に影響を与えています。

しかし、重要な点は次のとおりです。 ヘンリー8世はイングランドがプロテスタントになることを決して望んでいなかった。 彼は、教皇への忠誠心が強すぎた修道院を除いて、すべてが以前と同じように続くことを望んでいましたが、代わりに自分が教皇として就任しました。それが基本的かつ単純に彼が望んでいることだ。しかし、彼はいくつかの要素を考慮せずに計算した。

彼はまた、この本がウィリアム・ティンダルという男によって熱心に英語へ翻訳されていたことも計算に入れていませんでした。ティンダルはイングランド中で追われ、大陸へ逃げざるをえなくなり、最後には火刑に処されました。しかしティンダルは、以後の英語改訂版すべての基礎となる英語聖書を私たちに与えました。その聖書はヘンリーの治世中、イングランドのすべての教会に一冊ずつ置かれ、初めて人々が読みに行けるようになりました。ヘンリーはその事実を計算に入れていませんでした。お気づきでしょうか。いつも人々を自由にするのはこの本です。いつも、それを読む機会が最も驚くべきことを生み出します。

ヘンリーは、トーマス・クロムウェルのような人物の存在も計算に入れていませんでした。クロムウェルは修道院解散の背後にいた大臣で、次の世紀の議会指導者オリバー・クロムウェルとは別人です。クランマーと同じく、心の中ではプロテスタント思想に同情的でした。さらに、教皇がなおイングランドから「ピーターズ・ペンス」やその他の「アンナテ」を通じて資金を引き出していたこと、そうした貢納が続いていたことへの広範な憤りもありました。しかしヘンリーは変化の速さを恐れ、治世の終わりにはカトリック教徒も改革者も同じように処刑しました。彼が死んだとき、イングランドは動揺の中にあり、王位は10歳の少年に残されました。その少年は当時から非常に真面目な小さなキリスト者で、クランマーの深い影響を受け、イングランドが変化を続けることに共感していました。

典型的なイングランドの混乱

テューダーの振り子:四人の君主、四度の逆転

ヘンリー八世

1509–1547

ローマと断絶するが、古い教義を保つ

エドワード六世

1547–1553

プロテスタント化:『祈祷書』

メアリー一世

1553–1558

ローマへ戻る、約300人の殉教者

エリザベス一世

1558–1603

「中間の道」—エリザベス朝の宗教的和解

ヘンリー8世。若い頃はルターを論駁し、教皇から「信仰の擁護者」と呼ばれた。20年後、同じヘンリーはローマと断絶したが、イングランドを本当にプロテスタントにしたかったわけではない。
ヘンリー8世。若い頃はルターを論駁し、教皇から「信仰の擁護者」と呼ばれた。20年後、同じヘンリーはローマと断絶したが、イングランドを本当にプロテスタントにしたかったわけではない。若きハンス・ホルバインの工房、約1537年。パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons。
ヘンリー自身の兄の未亡人、アラゴンのキャサリン。教皇の特免で合法化されたヘンリー8世との結婚が、イングランド全体のローマ離脱の火種となった。
ヘンリー自身の兄の未亡人、アラゴンのキャサリン。教皇の特免で合法化されたヘンリー8世との結婚が、イングランド全体のローマ離脱の火種となった。作者不詳、約1520. パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.
ヘンリーが本当に愛した女性アン・ブーリン。クランマーが司式した二人の結婚が、イングランドを教皇の権威の下から押し出す最後の一歩となった。
ヘンリーが本当に愛した女性アン・ブーリン。クランマーが司式した二人の結婚が、イングランドを教皇の権威の下から押し出す最後の一歩となった。16世紀、失われた原作の複製。パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons。
新約を英語に訳し、1536年に火刑に処されたウィリアム・ティンダル。しかしヘンリー8世のもとで全教区教会に置かれた彼の訳は、ヘンリーの意図を超えてイングランド人を自由にした。
新約を英語に訳し、1536年に火刑に処されたウィリアム・ティンダル。しかしヘンリー8世のもとで全教区教会に置かれた彼の訳は、ヘンリーの意図を超えてイングランド人を自由にした。作者不詳、16世紀. パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.

エドワード6世。 この少年王の短い治世に、聖職者の結婚が認められ、英国国教会の主の晩餐はプロテスタント的な性格を帯び、祭壇はテーブルと呼ばれるようになりました。さらに重要なのは、礼拝が初めてラテン語ではなく英語で行われ、一般の人々も祈れる『共通祈祷書』が作られたことです。二度の改訂を経たこの書は、今日も英国国教会の礼拝で使われています。

この少年王のもとで、すべての司祭は少なくとも年に4回説教しなければならないという規則が導入されました。人々に年4回の説教を命じる規則が必要だったこと自体が、当時の英国国教会の状態を示しています。クランマーのもとでは42条の宗教条項が草案化され、後に39条へ削減されました。エドワード6世の治世にはプロテスタント難民も戻り、ストラスブールから著名な神学教授マルティン・ブツァーがケンブリッジへ来て、学生に宗教改革の福音理解を教えました。

その後、少年王は亡くなり、王位はスペイン人の母を持つ異母姉、メアリーに引き継がれました。メアリーは血筋の半分がスペイン人で、考え方もスペイン寄りでした。スペイン王フェリペと結婚し、イングランドをローマに戻そうとしました。既婚の聖職者1,200人が職を失いました。振り子はすぐに反動し、メアリーの治世中にほぼ300人のキリスト者が処刑され、彼女にはその恐ろしいあだ名が付けられました。ブラッディ・メアリー。彼女はその名に値しました。

オックスフォードのベリオール大学の外の目抜き通りには、プロテスタント信仰のためメアリーの治世中に火あぶりにされた二人の男性、ラティマーとリドリーの記念碑があります。ラティマーがリドリーに語った次の言葉を思い出すでしょう。「元気を出してください、リドリー師、男らしく振る舞ってください。私たちは今日、神の恵みによって、イングランドに決して消えないと信じるろうそくを灯します。」

メアリーの治世中、カンタベリー大司教クランマーは大きな圧力を受けて、自身が行った変更を撤回する文書に署名しました。しかし、そう簡単に心を変えることはできません。心の中では自分が間違っていたことを知っていましたが、彼もすぐに自分が火刑台に向かっていることに気づきました。決着の時が来たとき、彼はプロテスタントの立場を撤回したことに対する完全な後悔を公に宣言し、紙が燃え尽きるのを眺めながら、紙に署名した腕を炎の中に突っ込みました。彼は「そのような書類に署名したその手は、まず燃やされなければならない」と言いました。それはクランマーと他の300人の物語です。フーパーはグロスターで火刑に処されました。他の多くの人も火あぶりにされました。スミスフィールドの火刑について聞いたことがあるでしょう。メアリーの治世中には、4人の司教と1人の大司教、そして他の多くの有力な説教者が処刑されました。

エリザベス1世が王位に就いたときの安堵のため息が想像できるでしょう。教皇や多くの人々の目には、彼女は私生児だった。教皇はスコットランド女王メアリーを正当な後継者とみなしたが、スコットランド女王メアリーとエリザベスとの間の反逆罪の根源はそこにある。しかし迫害は終わり、難民が殺到してイギリスに戻ってきた。

私たちが英国国教会と呼ぶ典型的な英国の混乱が実際に形を現したのは、エリザベス 1 世の治世でした。エリザベスは華やかな奉仕が好きで、祭服が好きで、儀式が好きだったので、それらのものを手放すことに不満でした。彼女は、エドワードの2冊目の祈祷書があまりにもプロテスタント的すぎると主張し、改訂してローマ側に引き戻した。彼女は、この国で良い影響を及ぼしてきた、聖職者が集まって一緒に聖書を研究するという習慣さえ止めました。しかし、メアリーが試みたように時計の針を戻すことはできなかった。 エリザベス朝の宗教体制、いわゆる中道的な妥協に落ち着きました。そして、なぜ今日の英国国教会が福音派とアングロ・カトリックの両方を保持できるのかを知りたければ、エリザベス1世に戻る必要があります。なぜなら、議会によって押し付けられた中途半端な立場に物事を放置したことが、まさにその種の混合に対して扉を大きく開いたからです。

『共通祈祷の書』は、完全ではないものの、大部分がプロテスタントのままです。そして、エリザベスの治世下で最終的に作成された39条項は、プロテスタントの信仰を表明する素晴らしいものです。 39 条項を説教する聖職者は皆、福音を説いている聖職者です。悲しいことに、誰もがそうするわけではありませんが、この本にはそれがあり、徹底的に福音主義的な英国国教会を構築するのに十分なプロテスタント主義が含まれていますが、後に登場する他の教会の可能性も含まれています。

10歳で王位に就いたエドワード6世は「とても真面目な小さなキリスト者」だった。短い治世に『祈祷書』が生まれ、今日の聖公会礼拝でもほぼ変わらない。
10歳で王位に就いたエドワード6世は「とても真面目な小さなキリスト者」だった。短い治世に『祈祷書』が生まれ、今日の聖公会礼拝でもほぼ変わらない。工房:ウィリアム・スクロッツ、約1546. パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.
メアリー1世、「血まみれのメアリー」。イングランドをローマのもとへ戻そうと決意し、治世中にクランマー、ラティマー、リドリーを含む約300人のキリスト者を焼いた。
メアリー1世、「血まみれのメアリー」。イングランドをローマのもとへ戻そうと決意し、治世中にクランマー、ラティマー、リドリーを含む約300人のキリスト者を焼いた。Antonis Mor、1554. パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.
オックスフォードの殉教者記念碑。ラティマー、リドリー、クランマーを記念し、ラティマーはこう語ったとされる。「元気を出せ、リドリー。男らしく振る舞え。今日、神の恵みにより、決して消えないろうそくをイングランドに灯そう。」
オックスフォードの殉教者記念碑。ラティマー、リドリー、クランマーを記念し、ラティマーはこう語ったとされる。「元気を出せ、リドリー。男らしく振る舞え。今日、神の恵みにより、決して消えないろうそくをイングランドに灯そう。」現代写真、オックスフォード. パブリックドメイン/CC、Wikimedia Commons.
「アルマダ肖像」のエリザベス1世。手を地球儀に置いている。イングランドはスペインの侵攻を生き延び、今日も聖公会を形づくる宗教的な「中間の道」に落ち着いた。
「アルマダ肖像」のエリザベス1世。手を地球儀に置いている。イングランドはスペインの侵攻を生き延び、今日も聖公会を形づくる宗教的な「中間の道」に落ち着いた。工房:ジョージ・ガワー、約1588. パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.

エリザベスがスコットランド女王メアリーを処刑すると、スペイン王フェリペ2世は武力でイングランドを侵略し、ローマ教皇のために取り戻すと誓いました。彼はスペイン無敵艦隊を派遣しました。艦隊は約160隻、海兵隊は約30,000人で、海峡の向こうにはパルマ公の約30,000人の陸上軍が待機していました。イングランドは絶望的な窮地にあるように見えました。

しかしイングランドにはフランシス・ドレイク卿がいました。無敵艦隊が英国の優れた操船術によって敗走したこと、スペインの扱いにくいガレオン船には風が強すぎたこと、そして艦船がイングランドとスコットランドの海岸沿いで難破し、難破船を探す人々が今日まで調査を続けていることが語られます。その日は、まるで神ご自身がイングランドのために戦われたかのように見えました。

ポーソン氏は、スコットランド北部沖でスペインのガレオン船が難破し、船員たちが上陸して「セント・クレア」と呼ばれ、地元の少女たちと結婚してシンクレア一族を設立したという個人的な詳細を付け加えた。彼自身の母親はシンクレア人であったため、彼の説明によると、彼は無敵艦隊のスペイン人の血を引いています。 (これは純粋に家族の逸話であり、検証された歴史的出来事ではありませんが、ポーソンでさえ、このはるかに大きな物語に織り込まれた自分自身の小さな糸を見つけたことを示す魅力的な詳細です。)

改革者たちを要約すると、次のようになります。 ドイツ、スイス、イギリスの3カ国ではいずれも、同じ理由で宗教改革は完全に完了することはなかった。教会と国家があまりにも接近しすぎていたからだ。国家が教会を運営するか、教会が国家を運営するかのどちらかであり、その結果は常に宗教が地域全体に押し付けられ、最終的には戦争につながりました。ポーソンはこう尋ねます。人々が宗教をめぐって、キリストの名において、キリスト教の名のもとに戦争をし、殺し合うことほど悲劇的なものがあるでしょうか?

スペイン無敵艦隊(1588年)。よく繰り返される160隻ではなく約130隻で、イングランド海軍に敗れ、英蘇沿岸の嵐で難破した。
スペイン無敵艦隊(1588年)。よく繰り返される160隻ではなく約130隻で、イングランド海軍に敗れ、英蘇沿岸の嵐で難破した。英国派、16世紀後半. パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.

ローマ人: 反宗教改革の 3 つの側面

では、ローマ人はこの間何をしていたのでしょうか?ルターから60年後の1580年までに、プロテスタントはドイツの大部分、デンマーク、ノルウェー、スウェーデン、スイスのかなりの部分、フランスのかなりの部分、そしてイギリスにまで広がりました。一方、アイルランドとドイツはカトリックのままでした。奇妙なことに、これらすべては60年で起こり、その後の300年間、境界はほとんど変わらず、現在も大部分がそのままです。なぜプロテスタントは60年でこれほど急速に広がり、その後停止したのでしょうか。

答えは、ローマ人が何をしていたかを研究すれば、「反宗教改革」と呼ばれる運動が見えてくるということです。ローマへの攻撃があり、ローマはヨーロッパの半分を失いましたが、ローマは黙っているつもりはありませんでした。プロテスタントの洪水を止める三つの出来事が起こりました。

まずはイグナチオ・ロヨラとイエズス会。 ロヨラはスペインの貴族で、戦争で重傷を負い、足を骨折して何か月も病院で過ごしました。その間、彼は幻視と宗教的な回心を経験し、自分の使命はプロテスタントの拡大を阻止することだと信じて、熱心なカトリック教徒になりました。彼は、それには他の軍隊とはまったく異なる方法で戦う必要があると考え、信奉者を「ローマの救世軍」と呼んでもよいかもしれません。彼はパリへ行き、6人の仲間を集めてイエズス会を結成しました。ロヨラの目標はヨーロッパをローマにとどめ、プロテスタントの洪水を止めることであり、率直に言って、彼はそれをほぼ達成しました。

彼は何百人もの人々を集め、想像できる限り厳しい軍隊式の規律を課しました。それは『霊操』という本に記され、25日間の断食、幻視の追求など、さまざまなことが含まれていました。終わる頃には、あなたもイグナチオ・ロヨラの信奉者になる準備ができています。さらに、誰かをローマのために確保できるなら、公正な手段も不正な手段も、必要と思うどんな手段も使う覚悟がありました。だから英語の**「Jesuitry」という語には否定的な意味が伴います。その一人、フランシスコ・ザビエル**は、インド、東インド諸島、日本で70万人をローマに改宗させました。

第二に、トレント公会議。 教皇は、大いに議論する必要があると認識して公会議を招集しました。トレント公会議は1545年から1563年までの間に25回の会期を開きました。当初、教皇はプロテスタントを招き、同席して意見の相違を解決できるか検討しようとしました。しかし枢機卿たちが、プロテスタントを招かないよう教皇を説得し、彼らは招かれませんでした。もし来ていたら、歴史は変わっていたかもしれません。

トレント公会議はこう宣言しました。伝統は聖書と並んで立つ。外典は聖書の一部でなければならない。煉獄は存在する。免罪符、聖人への祈り、像、聖遺物は、正しく敬虔な実践である。そして教皇は絶対的な権威を持つ。ローマ教会がこれらをこれほど正式に述べたのは、これが初めてでした。率直に、しかし愛情を込めて言いますが、そのどれ一つとして今日まで変わっていません。そして、公会議は誤りえないと信じるなら、実際に変わるはずもありません。では、これらを今になってどう否定できるでしょうか。最近のバチカン公会議は多くを整理し、調整し、検討しましたが、私が今読み上げたものは一つも変わっていません。ローマが改訂標準訳聖書を受け入れると言うときでさえ、「外典を含めること」という条件が付いています。

第三に、異端審問が復活した。 拷問、投獄、死刑がプロテスタントに対する手段として使用されました。彼らはスペインのほぼすべてのプロテスタント、イタリアのほとんどのプロテスタント、そしてオーストリアなどの他の地域を一掃しました。その結果、今日に至るまで、私たちが理解しているキリスト教徒は、それらの国々ではごく少数派のままです。

潮流はなぜ60年後に止まったのか

対抗宗教改革の三つの力

1580年までに、ルターから60年後、プロテスタントはドイツ、スカンディナヴィア、スイス、フランス、イングランドの大部分へ広がった。その後300年間、線はほとんど動かなかった。洪水を止めたものは三つある。

イエズス会

ロヨラのイグナティウス、1540年

「ローマの救済軍」:厳格な規律、30日間の『霊操』黙想、正しい手段も悪い手段も使う姿勢—「イエズス会主義」が否定的な意味を持つようになった由来。フランシスコ・ザビエルはインドや日本にまで到達した。

トリエント公会議

1545—1563年、25会期

聖書と伝統、外典、煉獄、免罪符と聖画像・聖遺物の崇敬の正当性を再確認した。プロテスタントも実際には安全通行の保証のもと(1551—52年)招かれたが、ザクセンのモーリッツの戦争が試みを途中で終わらせた。

異端審問

復活

拷問、投獄、処刑によって、スペインのほぼ全プロテスタントとイタリアの大半を根絶しようとした。しかし現代研究(ヘンリー・ケイメン)は、スペインの実際の犠牲者数は同じ時期にメアリー一世がイングランドで処刑した人数より少ないとする。

イエズス会(1540年、イエスの会社)の創設者、ロヨラのイグナティウス(約1491—1556)。教育と宣教によるカトリック刷新の先頭に立った。
イエズス会(1540年、イエスの会社)の創設者、ロヨラのイグナティウス(約1491—1556)。教育と宣教によるカトリック刷新の先頭に立った。ヤコピーノ・デル・コンテ、約1556年(イグナティウスが亡くなった日に描かれた)。パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons。
インド、東インド諸島、日本へ赴いたイエズス会宣教師フランシスコ・ザビエル。「70万人の改宗者」という数字は後世の伝説で、現代研究では本人が洗礼を授けたのは約3万人とされる。
インド、東インド諸島、日本へ赴いたイエズス会宣教師フランシスコ・ザビエル。「70万人の改宗者」という数字は後世の伝説で、現代研究では本人が洗礼を授けたのは約3万人とされる。作者不詳、17世紀. パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.
トリエント公会議(1545—1563年)。宗教改革への決定的なカトリック教義上の応答で、聖書と伝統、恵みと協力による義認、七つの聖礼典、化体説を再確認した。
トリエント公会議(1545—1563年)。宗教改革への決定的なカトリック教義上の応答で、聖書と伝統、恵みと協力による義認、七つの聖礼典、化体説を再確認した。Elia Naurizio、1633 (ブオンコンシーリョ博物館、Trento). パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.

急進派: 剣は 1 つだけ、両方に対して

さて、3番目のグループは、私が最も簡潔に説明できるグループですが、それでも最も重要だと考えているグループです。彼らは宗教改革の極左翼だったため、ラジカル(急進派)と呼ばれています。私が最近読んだ本では、彼らを「宗教改革の継子」と呼んでいます。彼らは何者で、何を信じていたのでしょうか。彼らは、最も根本的な問いを立て始めました。改革は誰が担うべきなのか?誰が変化を起こすべきなのか? そして、ローマ教会も宗教改革者もまだ到達していなかった重要な結論に達しました。国家は関与すべきではない、と彼らは言ったのです。教会と国家はまったく異なる二つの組織です。したがって、両者をあまり近づけてはなりません。これらの急進派は、既成教会ではなく自由な教会を信じていました。彼らは確立されたプロテスタント主義にも満足していませんでした。「政府を通じて人々を善くすることはできない」と彼らは言いました。宗教を押し付けることはできません。それは人々自身が自由かつ自発的に受け入れなければならないのです。イングランドの全員がプロテスタントになるとは言えません。スペイン人全員がローマ教会に属さなければならないとも言えません。使える剣は一つだけです。それは御霊の剣、神の言葉です。つまり、彼らは平和主義者でした。プロテスタントとカトリックの間の戦争で戦うことを拒みました。「私たちは福音のために戦いません。御霊の剣、神の言葉だけを使います」と言ったのです。

これは革命的でした。そして彼らは、社会を結びつけるもの、つまり教会と国家は互いに属しているという考えそのものを破壊する危険な革命家とみなされました。では、彼らはどこから始めたのでしょうか。彼らは1522年、スイスのチューリヒ市に現れました。重要なことに、彼らは自分たちを「兄弟」と呼び、指導者は二人の男、コンラッド・グレーベルフェリックス・マンツでした。ツヴィングリが市議会にプロテスタントをすべての人へ強制するよう働きかけていた、まさにその都市です。彼らは「それは正しい方法ではない」と言いました。唯一の正しい方法は、御言葉を説教し、人々が自発的にそれを受け入れたら教会を形成することです。そして彼らは、今私たちが信教の自由と呼んでいるもののために戦っていました。

そして今、とても悲しいことを言わなければなりません。これらの人々を攻撃したのはローマ人だけではなく、宗教改革者も同様でした。マルティン・ルターがドイツの諸侯に対し、急進派に対して剣を用いなければならないと告げる時が来ました。そしてジョン・カルヴァンも同意しました。フェリックス・マンツを溺死させることは、バプテストにふさわしい結末だとされ、彼はカルヴァンの支援によって溺死させられました。ツヴィングリ自身でさえ、チューリヒの議会にこれらの人々に対する残酷な法律を可決させました。皮肉ではないでしょうか。ローマ人は国家を利用し、宗教改革者も同じように、キリストの名において文字どおりの剣を使うことをいとわなかったのです。しかし急進派はこう言いました。「私たちはこの剣以外の剣を使わない」。こうしてローマ人の剣も改革者の剣も、彼らに向けられました。

しかし、話はそこで止まらず、ポーソン氏は急進派の中の「ツヴィッカウのトーマス・ミュンツァーのような狂信者や過激派もいる」とも言及しているが、詳しく調べた結果、彼らのほとんどはその評判に値しないことが示されていると彼は言う。

メノ・シモンズ、もしあなたがメノナイトに出会ったことがあるなら、あなたはそれらの偉大なキリスト教徒たちにメノ・シモンズのおかげがあるでしょう。 ジェイコブ・ハッター、フッター派に出会ったことがあるなら、それはジェイコブ・フッターのおかげです。私の考えでは、彼らは究極の改革者でした。言ったのは彼らでした、「神の言葉に従っていないものはすべて変えます、そして自分たちで変えます」。私たちは王子や法王がそれを変えるのを待ちません。私たちは神の言葉に従って生き、個人として、また交わりとして最大限にそれに従うつもりです。そして彼らはこれを実行しました。

私たちが今日ここにいるのは、再洗礼派のおかげです。確立された教会から自由になれたのは、エリザベス1世の時代にイングランドで、独立派と呼ばれる集団の影響力と思想が台頭したからです。彼らは「自由な教会が欲しい」と言いました。イングランドでそれを見つけられなかったため、彼らはメイフラワー号に乗ってアメリカへ向かい、信教の自由、つまり各人が正しいと感じる信仰に従う自由の原則を、永続するものとして確立しようとしました。これは私たちの遺産です。そして、これこそが彼らが戦い、死んだ理由なのです。

彼らにはツヴィッカウのトーマス・ミュンツァーのような狂信者や過激派もいた。しかし概して、彼らの物語を研究すると、その物語は今ようやく適切に書かれ、研究は今になって出版され始めたばかりであることがわかります。人々は今になってようやく再洗礼派の本当の立場を理解し始めたということです。彼らは信教の自由のために戦って死んだ、しかし彼らはそれのために戦っただけで、革命家として非難されたが、イエス・キリストも同様だった。そしてイエスはこう言いました。 「私の王国はこの世のものではありません。もしこの世のものであれば、私の家臣たちは戦うでしょう。」 そしてそれはまさに再洗礼派が言ったことです。

来週の日曜日、神様のご意志で、物語を17世紀、イギリスに信教の自由がもたらされた時代、この国で人々が自分の信念に従うことが許され始めた時代に持ち込んでみましょう。ウィリアム・ペンの時代。ジョン・バニヤンの時代。そして、さらに多くの偉大な神の僕の時代。

二本の剣に対する一本の剣

急進派:国家に守られず、双方から攻撃された

1525年、チューリヒのグレーベルとマンツは、教会が使うべき剣は「霊の剣」—御言葉—だけだと言った。信者だけが洗礼を受けるべきだとした。ローマも改革者も、これは死に至るほど危険な原則だと考えた。

ローマの剣

異端に対する刑法である異端審問

改革者の剣

ツヴィングリ:フェリックス・マンツは1527年チューリヒで溺死。カルヴァン:セルヴェトゥスを1553年に火刑にすることへ加担。

その中間に再洗礼派がいた。「一本の剣」—御言葉—だけを使い、双方から攻撃されても他の剣を取ることを拒んだ。

メンノ・シモンズ(1496—1561)、元カトリック司祭。分裂した再洗礼派に平和的で非暴力的なアイデンティティを与え、メノナイトは彼の名を受け継いだ。
メンノ・シモンズ(1496—1561)、元カトリック司祭。分裂した再洗礼派に平和的で非暴力的なアイデンティティを与え、メノナイトは彼の名を受け継いだ。版画:Jacob Burghart、1683 (没後制作). パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.

次の講義でポーソンは、1607年に印刷された聖書を開きます。古い英語の長いs(ſ)が使われ、ウィリアム・ティンダルの先行する翻訳に大きく依拠した聖書です。彼はを全文読みます。この手紙は獄中で書かれたものであり、17世紀にも、ジョン・バニヤンの『天路歴程』をはじめとする優れた作品が獄中で生まれたからです。

彼は世紀を1600年から1700年までと明確に定義しています。そして、この二つの端の違いが講義の要点です。1600年には、この会衆は今夜集まって礼拝することを許されなかったでしょう。1700年までには、それができるようになります。彼は、どのようにしてこの地に信仰の自由がもたらされ、過去200〜300年間、人々が誰にも邪魔されず、投獄や処刑を恐れずに自分たちが正しいと思うように礼拝できるようになったかを示そうとしています。この戦いが行われ、最終的に勝利したのはこの世紀です。

第二部:17世紀、礼拝の自由をめぐる戦い

イングランド、1600、そして欽定訳聖書の冒険

1600年の状況

イングランドの三つのキリスト者集団

1600年、この教会は今夜のように集まることを許されなかった。1700年までには許された。礼拝の自由がイングランドに来た経緯である。

聖公会派

エリザベスの「中間の道」—古いローマの慣行と宗教改革の変化の混合—を受け入れた。

清教徒

なおイングランド国教会の中にいたが、祭服、十字架、ろうそくをなくし、簡素で御言葉中心の礼拝を望んだ。リチャード・バクスターが代表した。

独立派

イングランド国教会の完全な外部に立った。分離派または会衆派とも呼ばれる。標語は「誰も待たずに改革する」。

今世紀の初め、イングランドにはキリスト者を名乗る三つの集団がありました。公式には、法律で禁じられていたためローマ・カトリック教徒はもう存在しませんでした。残っていたとしても、彼らは密かな同調者でした。英国国教会内には二つの集団がありました。英国国教会派はエリザベス女王がまとめた妥協案を受け入れ、清教徒はリチャード・バクスターに代表され、祭服も十字架もろうそくもない、より純粋な英国国教会を望みました。簡素な礼拝で、何よりも儀式ではなく神の言葉を中心にする教会です。バクスターが牧師を務めたキダーミンスターは、その好例です。日曜日に2、3時間教えたほか、彼は家々を訪ね、教区内の各家庭に聖書研究を行いました。それがキダーミンスターに対する彼の影響力の秘密です。

英国国教会の外には第三の集団、独立派がありました。分離派、「ブラウン派」、または会衆派とも呼ばれます。各会衆が主のもとで自分たちの事柄を整えるべきだと信じていました。彼らの標語は「誰も待たずに改革する」でした。議会や教会が変わるのを待たず、今すぐ地元の会衆で聖書に従って生きるという意味です。詩人ジョン・ミルトンは、この世紀初頭の会衆派的傾向の一例です。グリーンウッドやバローのように、その代償を命で支払った人も多くいました。

スコットランド王ジェームズ6世はイングランド王ジェームズ1世となった。彼は当初から宗教を統治する王の神聖な権利と教会を統治する司教の神聖な権利を密かに保持していましたが、まだスコットランド王にすぎない間はそれを黙っていました。彼が南に来たとき、イギリス人は彼がピューリタンの路線を支持することを期待した。彼らはすぐにショックを受けました。彼は「長老派も神と悪魔と同様に君主制に同意している」と宣言した。彼の合言葉: 「司教も王もいない」

1604年、ジェームズはハンプトン・コート宮殿で宗教会議を招集しました。ピューリタンの代表レイノルズ博士は、既存の英訳聖書間の不一致を解消する新訳を求めました。この提案が採用され、会議後の1604〜1611年に約47人の学者が作業を行いました。その成果が1611年の欽定訳聖書(キング・ジェームズ版)です。ジェームズが翻訳を自ら行ったからではなく、完成して献呈された時の王だったため、その名で呼ばれています。

その年、イングランド初期のバプテスト教会の一つが1611年に設立されました。一方、ジェームズはすべての聖職者に司教への服従を求めました。これを拒んで職を失った牧師は、1,500人や300人ではなく、記録上はおよそ80〜100人です。これが英国国教会の新たな亀裂となり、祭服や儀式が復活していきました。

ジェームズ1世。「主教なくして王なし」—1604年のハンプトン・コート会議を招集し、そこで清教徒牧師が後の欽定訳聖書となる翻訳を提案した。
ジェームズ1世。「主教なくして王なし」—1604年のハンプトン・コート会議を招集し、そこで清教徒牧師が後の欽定訳聖書となる翻訳を提案した。工房:ジョン・ド・クリッツ、約1605. パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.
1604年、ジェームズ1世が清教徒を嘲笑したハンプトン・コート宮殿。オックスフォード教授レイノルズが新しい聖書翻訳を提案するまでのことである。
1604年、ジェームズ1世が清教徒を嘲笑したハンプトン・コート宮殿。オックスフォード教授レイノルズが新しい聖書翻訳を提案するまでのことである。英国派、17世紀. パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.
1611年に印刷された欽定訳聖書の扉頁。王が主に清教徒の要求を打ち砕くため招いた会議から、思いがけず生まれた成果である。
1611年に印刷された欽定訳聖書の扉頁。王が主に清教徒の要求を打ち砕くため招いた会議から、思いがけず生まれた成果である。ロバート・バーカー印刷所、ロンドン、1611. パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.
キダーミンスターの清教徒牧師リチャード・バクスター。教区のほぼ全家庭に自ら教理を教え、各家庭に週およそ1時間を費やした。
キダーミンスターの清教徒牧師リチャード・バクスター。教区のほぼ全家庭に自ら教理を教え、各家庭に週およそ1時間を費やした。ロバート・ホワイト、17世紀. パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.

ピューリタンの聖職者たちはアイルランドへ逃れました。当時の大主教はアッシャーという、年代の計算に熱心な人物でした。欽定訳聖書のの冒頭に「紀元前4004年」と印刷されているのを見たことがあるでしょうか。神が聖書に書き込んだわけではないその年代は、アッシャー大主教が記したものです。彼は、アダムがその年の10月21日、午前9時頃に生まれたと計算したのです。あるイギリスの学者は、アッシャーは慎重な学者だったので、それ以上正確な時刻を断言することは控えたのだろう、と皮肉を込めて述べました。

良心に従って礼拝できなかった人々は東のオランダへ逃れました。スクルービーという小さな村には、忠実な牧師ジョン・ロビンソンのもとで自分たちの会衆として集まる独立派のグループがありました。しかし、地元の地主が治安判事を連れてきて脅したため、彼らは船を見つけてオランダへ渡るしかないと判断しました。これは劇的な物語です。ボストン近郊で彼らを迎えるよう手配されたオランダ船は、発見を避けるため二つの便に分かれ、一隻には男性、もう一隻には女性と子供が乗るはずでした。女性と子供を乗せた船は泥に乗り上げました。男性たちはオランダ船にたどり着きましたが、その後イングランド軍が岸に現れて船を銃撃し、船は離岸して妻子を干潟に残しました。幸い、1、2年後には女性と子供たちもオランダへ渡り、家族と再会できました。

しかし、アムステルダムでは別の動きが起きていました。キリスト教徒のグループが洗礼の問題を研究し始めたのです。それまで宗教改革者は、何世紀にもわたって行われてきた幼児洗礼を実践していました。しかし、ジョン・スミストーマス・ヘルウィスの率いるグループはこれを検討し、洗礼は信者にのみ施すべきだという結論に達しました。彼らの誰も洗礼を授ける資格を持っていなかったため、スミスが自分で洗礼を施し、続いて約40人(ヘルウィスを含む)に洗礼を授けました。スミスはオランダに残りましたが、ヘルウィスはグループを率いてイングランドへ戻り、1612年、ロンドンのスピタルフィールズにイングランド初のバプテスト教会を設立しました。

王は死すべき人間であり、神ではない。したがって、臣民の死すべき魂を支配し、彼らのために法律や条例を制定し、彼らの上に霊的主を置く権限はない。神に対する人間の宗教は神と自分たちとの間にある。王はそれには答えないだろう…彼らが異端者であろうと、トルコ人であろうと、ユダヤ人であろうと、あるいは何であれ、彼らを罰することは地上の力には少しも属さない。 トーマス・ヘルウィス、「不法行為の謎に関する短い宣言」 (1612)

創造の始まりを計算した厳密な学者、ジェームズ・アッシャー大主教。よく語られる「10月21日午前9時」ではなく、紀元前4004年10月23日の前夜で、時刻は指定していない。
創造の始まりを計算した厳密な学者、ジェームズ・アッシャー大主教。よく語られる「10月21日午前9時」ではなく、紀元前4004年10月23日の前夜で、時刻は指定していない。ピーター・レリー、17世紀. パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.
分離派がまずオランダへ、後に新世界へ出航する場面。実際の脱出は一度の劇的な出来事ではなく、二度の失敗(1607年、1608年)の後に成功した。
分離派がまずオランダへ、後に新世界へ出航する場面。実際の脱出は一度の劇的な出来事ではなく、二度の失敗(1607年、1608年)の後に成功した。ロバート・ウォルター・ウィア、約1857年(米国議会議事堂). パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.

メイフラワー号とチャールズ1世:議会のない11年間

低地諸国にとどまっていた別の独立派グループは、ヨーロッパに居続けるのは現実的でなく、歓迎もされず、仕事もなく飢えることになると悟りました。彼らは大きな決断をし、イングランドへ戻って船を手に入れ、新世界へ渡り、国家に礼拝方法を指図されずに暮らせる自由な世界をアメリカに築こうとしました。彼らは戻ってメイフラワー号の所有者を説得して乗船させてもらい、「ピルグリム・ファーザーズ」と呼ばれました。1620年にプリマスを出航し、その12月に新世界のプリマスへ到着しました。しかし最初の冬には、食糧不足、寒さ、医療の不足により50%が死亡するという厳しい経験が待っていました。それでも彼らはとどまり、確立された英国国教会派の入植地と争いながらも、ピルグリム・ファーザーズは、今日のアメリカが国家と教会の関係から完全に自由で、誰もが自分にふさわしいと感じる仕方で礼拝できることにつながる何かを始めました。

それでジェームズの治世には、ある者はアイルランドへ、ある者はオランダへ行きましたが、イングランドでは国教会への服従を強いられました。彼の後を継いだチャールズ1世は、父よりも悪い王でした。彼も王と司教の王権神授説を信じ、さらに踏み込みました。ピューリタンを投獄し、高額の罰金を科し、さらし台にかけ、耳を切り、鼻を裂く――こうしたことがすべてチャールズ1世の治世に起こりました。当時のカンタベリー大司教ウィリアム・ロードは、チャールズ1世が「時計の針を戻す」のを助けました。教区教会の聖餐卓は再び「祭壇」と呼ばれ、人々はそれに向かって頭を下げるよう強いられました。議会が反対すると、チャールズ1世は11年間、議会なしで統治しました。今日の王や女王がそんなことをするなんて想像できますか。私は、議会が11年間、王や女王なしでやっていくことは想像できます。しかし国王が「もう議会はいらない」と言うことは想像できません。

15,000人のロンドン市民は宮殿へ行進し、チャールズ1世に「根と枝の請願書」を提出しました。「根と枝」という表現を聞いたことがあるなら、これはすべての「ローマの迷信」を根絶したいという願いから生まれた言葉です。チャールズ1世は聞く耳を持たず、まもなくイングランドでは1642年に内戦が勃発しました。議会は国王と戦いましたが、その争いは宗教問題でもありました。概して英国国教会は国王側に、ピューリタンは議会側につきました。北と西は国王の手中にあり、南と東は議会の手中にありました。だからこそ、今日の自由教会を研究すれば、彼らがなおそのパターンに従っていることが分かるでしょう。

議会にとって最も偉大な闘士の一人は ジョン・ハンプデン、アリスバーリーのマーケット広場に彼の銅像があります。悲しいことに、その指導者は戦争の非常に早い段階で殺され、議会は負け始めました。彼らは指導者を待っていました。そしてその指導者、オリバー・クロムウェルが現れました。クロムウェルは彼らをニューモデル軍に編成し、「神を信頼し、火薬を乾かしておけ」という有名な合言葉を掲げました。彼はこの国で信教の自由のために戦う軍隊に新たな士気を吹き込みました。

この内戦中、ウェストミンスターで、オックスフォードとケンブリッジの聖職者や学者が、誰もが受け入れられる教会生活の形を定めようと集まりました。これはウェストミンスター神学者会議で、数人のスコットランド人も招かれました。スコットランド人がしばしばそうするように、彼らの影響は深く及びました。彼らはウェストミンスター信仰告白と呼ばれる信仰声明を作りました。今日に至るまで、これはスコットランド人だけでなく、世界中のほとんどの長老派教会の信仰告白です。おそらく一行は引用できるでしょう。「人間の主な目的は何ですか。」人間の主な目的は、神の栄光をたたえ、永遠に神を喜ぶことです。この言葉を聞いたことがあるでしょうか。これは内戦中、ウェストミンスターで定められました。しかし一般には受け入れられませんでした。スコットランド人は受け入れましたが、イングランド人は決して受け入れなかったのです。

チャールズ1世はまだ存命でしたが、ついには斬首されるためロンドンへ連行されました。彼はストーク・ポージスの邸宅に、数週間だったのか数日だったのか、拘留されました。機会があれば、ぜひそこへ行って邸宅に入ってください。暖炉の上の漆喰壁には、チャールズ1世の王室紋章が描かれています。処刑を待つ時間をやり過ごし、気を紛らわせるために、彼自身が漆喰に王室紋章を描いたのです。今はガラスで覆われていますが、1649年にホワイトホールで斬首される前のチャールズ1世がいたストーク・ポージスの大広間で、今も見ることができます。

一世紀、六つの治世

ステュアート君主とその宗教政策

ジェームズ一世

1603–1625

「主教なくして王なし」—清教徒に圧力をかけたが、欽定訳聖書(1611年)を生んだ

チャールズ一世

1625–1649

ロードと共に儀礼をさらに推し進め、議会なしに11年統治し、内戦の末に処刑された

コモンウェルス

1649–1660

クロムウェル。まず長老派、次に独立派が支配し、「新しい長老は大きく書かれた古い司祭にすぎない」と言われた

チャールズ二世

1660–1685

王政復古、1662年の大追放、カトリックへの密かな同情

ジェームズ二世

1685–1688

公然とカトリックで、イングランドをローマへ戻すと決意し、倒された

ウィリアムとメアリー

1689–

寛容法—安定と寛容の時代(カトリックを除く)が始まる

1620年、プリマス港のメイフラワー号。102人の乗客のうち実際にライデンの分離派だったのは約40人で、残りは支援者が集めた別の入植者だった。
1620年、プリマス港のメイフラワー号。102人の乗客のうち実際にライデンの分離派だったのは約40人で、残りは支援者が集めた別の入植者だった。ウィリアム・ハルソール、1882年(ピルグリム・ホール博物館). パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.
1620年のメイフラワー誓約の署名。入植者が土地に足を踏み入れる前に結んだ、最初の自治契約である。
1620年のメイフラワー誓約の署名。入植者が土地に足を踏み入れる前に結んだ、最初の自治契約である。Jean Leon Gerome Ferris、20世紀初頭. パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.
チャールズ1世。王と主教の神聖な権利について父よりもさらに強硬で、議会なしに11年間統治し、1649年に処刑された。
チャールズ1世。王と主教の神聖な権利について父よりもさらに強硬で、議会なしに11年間統治し、1649年に処刑された。Anthony van Dyck、約1636. パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.
カンタベリー大主教ウィリアム・ロード。チャールズ1世が「時計を戻す」のを助け、聖餐卓を「祭壇」と呼び替え、人々にその前でお辞儀をさせた。
カンタベリー大主教ウィリアム・ロード。チャールズ1世が「時計を戻す」のを助け、聖餐卓を「祭壇」と呼び替え、人々にその前でお辞儀をさせた。工房:Anthony van Dyck、約1638. パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.
議会のニューモデル軍を率いたオリバー・クロムウェル。「神を信じ、火薬を乾かしておけ」という句は長く彼の言葉とされたが、最初に現れるのは1834年の詩である。
議会のニューモデル軍を率いたオリバー・クロムウェル。「神を信じ、火薬を乾かしておけ」という句は長く彼の言葉とされたが、最初に現れるのは1834年の詩である。Samuel Cooper、約1656. パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.
1647年ウェストミンスター信仰告白の扉頁。「人の第一の目的は神をあがめ、永遠に神を楽しむこと」。イングランド議会が召集し、スコットランド教会が採用したが、イングランドは採用しなかった。
1647年ウェストミンスター信仰告白の扉頁。「人の第一の目的は神をあがめ、永遠に神を楽しむこと」。イングランド議会が召集し、スコットランド教会が採用したが、イングランドは採用しなかった。ロンドン版、1647. パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.
1649年1月30日、ホワイトホールの宴会場前で行われたチャールズ1世の処刑。自らの議会に処刑された王である。
1649年1月30日、ホワイトホールの宴会場前で行われたチャールズ1世の処刑。自らの議会に処刑された王である。ドイツまたはオランダ派、17世紀. パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.

バニヤン、「新しい長老派も結局は古い司祭を大きくしただけ」とチャールズ2世の治世

オリバー・クロムウェルと戦った兵士の中には、ベッドフォード郊外のエルストウという小さな村で生まれた、酒に強く、戦いに強く、悪口も激しい若者がいた。彼の名前は ジョン・バニヤン。 (彼については後ほど詳しく説明します。)

内戦の後、長老派は英国国教会を掌握し、全員を長老派にしようとした。おかしいと思いませんか、英国国教会が主導権を握っているときは、誰もが英国国教会でなければなりません。長老派が主導権を握ると、誰もが長老派でなければならない。これにより、誰かがこう言いました。 「新しい長老は、大きく言えば古い司祭にすぎません。」 言い換えれば、私たちはある専制政治を別の専制政治と交換しただけなのです。

ついに、私たちはチャールズ2世の治世を迎えます。原則を欠き、放蕩だったため、彼を十分に悪く言うことはできません。スコットランド人は最初に彼を受け入れ、スコーンで戴冠させ、より純粋なピューリタン教会のために、長老主義を守ってスコットランド人や英国議会と戦うだろうと考えました。しかし、スコットランド人はすぐにその愚かさを後悔しました。盟約派の物語を詳しく扱うことはできませんが、17,000人のスコットランドの盟約派が、良心に従って礼拝するため高地で秘密裏に集まり、チャールズ2世のもとで苦しんだことだけ述べておきます。

チャールズ2世は密かにローマ・カトリック教会に同情的で、陰謀を通じてイングランドをそこへ戻そうとしました。フランスのルイ14世と秘密協定を結び、宗教改革前へ時計を200年戻そうとしたのです。1661年以降、一連の議会法がその時計を戻しました。最悪だったのが1662年の統一法です。まだローマ・カトリックではなく英国国教会でしたが、チャールズ2世と議会は「全員がこれに従わなければならない」と定めました。同年、統一法への従属を拒んだ約2,000人の聖職者が、家も仕事もないまま職を追われました。英語には新しい語、「非国教徒」(nonconformist)が加わり、当初は犯罪者を指す言葉でした。その中には、親愛なるリチャード・バクスターもいました。

1665年、別の法が制定されました。追放された聖職者たちが以前の会衆に会うため密かに戻ってきたため、議会は聖職者が以前の教会から5マイル以内に入ることを禁じました。これが五マイル法です。ウェンドーバーへ行くと、村の外へ歩いて5分ほどの道路脇にバプテスト教会があります。なぜ村の外に建てたのでしょうか。1662年、アリスバーリーの牧師は従属を拒んで追放されましたが、町へ忍び戻り、台所や庭で集会を続けました。五マイル法が出ると、彼はアリスバーリーの中心に立って5マイル歩き、野原に着いた場所で集会を始めました。人々もアリスバーリーから5マイル歩いてそこへ集まり、礼拝所を建てました。それが現在のウェンドーバー・バプテスト教会です。

1673年、悪名高い審査法が成立しました。これはローマ・カトリック教徒にも非国教徒にも、イングランドではもう居場所がないという意味でした。誰もがこの礼拝方式に従わなければなりませんでした。

迫害から寛容へ

四つの法令、ほぼ30年

1662

統一法

大追放—服従を拒んだ数百人から約2000人の牧師が職を失った。

1665

五マイル法

追放された牧師は、以前の教区から5マイル以内に入ることを禁じられた。

1673

審査法

カトリックと非国教徒を公職・軍職から締め出したが、イングランド居住までは禁じなかった。

1689

寛容法

非国教徒は公に礼拝できるようになった。カトリックは除外され、さらに89—140年待つことになった。

ジョン・バニヤン。かつて「酒を飲み、争い、悪態をつく」兵士だったが、ベッドフォードのバプテスト説教者となり、免許なしの説教で12年間投獄された。
ジョン・バニヤン。かつて「酒を飲み、争い、悪態をつく」兵士だったが、ベッドフォードのバプテスト説教者となり、免許なしの説教で12年間投獄された。Thomas Sadler、1684. パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.
チャールズ2世。密かにカトリックに同情し、ルイ14世との秘密条約の当事者であり、1662年に約2000人の牧師が職を失った時の王だった。
チャールズ2世。密かにカトリックに同情し、ルイ14世との秘密条約の当事者であり、1662年に約2000人の牧師が職を失った時の王だった。ジョン・マイケル・ライト、約1660–65. パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.

ジョン・バニヤン、ジョージ・フォックス、ウィリアム・ペン:良心の囚人

この時期、ジョン・バニヤンは年を重ね、裏庭で数人の主婦が噂話をしているのを聞いたことをきっかけに回心し、ベッドフォードで説教者になりました。(主婦の皆さん、裏庭で噂話をするなら、正しいことについて話していると、別のジョン・バニヤンを生み出すかもしれないことを心に留めておいてください。大酒飲みで、口が悪く、けんか好きだったこの青年は、裏庭で主婦たちがイエスについて話すのを偶然耳にし、それまで聞いたことのないほどすばらしい話に罪を示されたのです。)彼は回心し、ベッドフォードで説教者となり、信者として洗礼を受け、できる限りどこででも福音を宣べ伝えました。

ジョン・バニヤンはチャールズ2世の治世下で、途中に一度の釈放を挟みながら12年間投獄され、盲目の妻と苦労する子供たちから引き離されました。しかしある日、刑務所で夢を見ました。背中に重荷を背負った男と、その重荷を取り除きたいと願う男が見えたのです。彼はその夢を書き始め、それが*『天路歴程』となりました。この本は子供向け版ではなく、ぜひ大人向けの版を全部読んでほしいと思います。大人向けの版では、巡礼者に何が起きたかだけでなく、彼が何を考え、何を語ったかも分かります。そしていつか、バニヤンのもう一つの重要な本、彼の回心と説教者になるまでを描いた『罪人の首領にあふれる恵み』も読んでほしいと思います。『天路歴程』*は、聖書に次いで最もよく知られたキリスト教書でしょう。そこでは教会にも秘跡にも一度も触れていません。そのため、あらゆる教派のキリスト者に受け入れられ、今日までキリスト教世界で書かれた本のなかでも最も広い読者に訴えかけてきました。

彼は1688年に亡くなり、私が最近訪れたバンヒル・フィールズに埋葬されました。人生の終わりまでに、人々は彼を「バニヤン司教」と呼ぶようになりましたが、彼が決してなりたくなかったのは司教でした。しかし彼が各地を旅し、人々が助けを求めて彼のもとへ来ると、彼らは「あなたには、司教と呼ばれている人々と同じくらい、司教と呼ばれる権利がある」と言いました。そこで私たちは彼をそう呼ぶことにしたのです。つまり、バニヤン司教です。

バニヤンの物語には、キリスト教世界の反対側にほぼ正確な時系列とテーマの鏡像がありますが、ポーソンの説明にはまったく登場しません。ニコン総主教の典礼改革(1652年以降)によってロシア教会は分裂し、1666〜1667年のモスクワ大公会議は改革を承認して古い儀式を否定し、「古儀式派」の分裂を生みました。その中心人物である大司祭アヴァクームは10年以上投獄され、その間に*『大司祭アヴァクーム自伝』(1672〜1675年)を書きました。これは、回心と苦難を描いた獄中の霊的自伝で、スラヴ研究者たちはしばしばバニヤンの『罪人の首領にあふれる恵み』と比較します。アヴァクームは*1682年4月14日、3人の同志とともに生きたまま焼かれました。バニヤンが1688年に自然死する6年前のことです。同じ世紀、同じ主題、国家が強制する典礼の統一、獄中で書かれた霊的古典、キリスト教世界の両端で殉教した運動の創設者という共通点があります。

1678年初版『天路歴程』の扉頁。聖書に次いで最も広く読まれたキリスト教書で、獄中の夢から生まれた。
1678年初版『天路歴程』の扉頁。聖書に次いで最も広く読まれたキリスト教書で、獄中の夢から生まれた。ナサニエル・ポンダー印刷所、ロンドン、1678. パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.

この時期には、まったく異なる種類の人物も苦しみました。ジョージ・フォックスは1646年に非常に深い霊的体験をしました。その経験にはとても良い面もあれば、あまり良くない面もありました。フォックスは、すべての真理へ導く聖霊の力を発見、あるいは再発見しました。彼はこの経験を「内なる光」と呼び、「聖書が自分の外にあるだけ、あるいは頭の中にあるだけでは不十分で、自分の内にも聖霊が必要だ」と語りました。これは再発見され、語られる必要のあることでした。聖書を暗記していても、聖霊がなければそれは生きておらず、死んだ文字にすぎません。

しかし、悲しいことに、何か良いことを再発見した後、彼はさらに一歩進んで、それほど良くないことを言いました。今日私たちが必要とする確かな預言の言葉は聖書ではなく、聖霊だけだというのです。この発言から、その後の運動の最大の弱点が生まれました。彼は同じ考えを持つ人々を集め、友の会と呼びました。他の人々は、彼らが集会で神の前に震えたことから、クエーカー教徒というあだ名を付けました。神が聖霊を通して内側に語ることができると信じる点は、以来、彼らの強みであると同時に弱みでもあります。弱みは、主イエスが与えるよう意図した秘跡を外面的なものとして拒み、聖書を軽視して内なる考えだけに頼る傾向があることです。

ジョージ・フォックスはその発言のために投獄され、チャールズ2世の治世下には、ある時点で4,000人のクエーカー教徒が投獄されていました。それがどれほどの割合だったか想像できれば、彼らの苦しみが理解できるでしょう。刑務所では友人が食べ物を持ってきてくれなければ何も食べられず、もしクエーカー教徒が全員投獄されていたなら、食べ物を届ける人は誰も残らなかったのです。

若い貴族はこう言いました。「イギリスでは、私たちが望むように礼拝する自由を決して得られない。新大陸へ行かなければならない。」彼の名はウィリアム・ペンです。ペンはこの場所から1マイルも離れていない、ジョーダン集会所の静かな小さな墓地に家族とともに埋葬されています。彼は沿岸植民地の境界を越えて新大陸へ赴き、「信教の自由がある国をつくろう」と言い、それがペンシルベニアとなりました。そこはウィリアム・ペンの植民地で、人々は聖霊の内なる光に従って自由に礼拝できました。彼は大西洋を3、4回渡り、最後はここへ戻って亡くなり、ジョーダンズに埋葬されました。

しかし、ポーソン自身が結び付けていない重要な糸があります。二人とも彼の講義に登場しますが、ウィリアム・ペンはジェームズ2世と実際に親しい個人的関係を持っていました(ジェームズの父はペンの父の友人でした)。ペンの影響によって、国王は1687年4月4日の寛容宣言を発布し、カトリック教徒と非国教徒の双方に礼拝の自由を認めたとされています。つまり、普遍的な寛容を求めるペンの働きは、ジェームズ自身のカトリック寛容政策を直接後押しし、その政策は1688年の革命で崩壊しました。

フレンズ会の創設者ジョージ・フォックス。集会で神の前に震えたため「クエーカー」と呼ばれた。
フレンズ会の創設者ジョージ・フォックス。集会で神の前に震えたため「クエーカー」と呼ばれた。伝統的に年代が付された肖像 1677. パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.
22歳のウィリアム・ペン。後に宗教の自由の植民地ペンシルベニアを創設した若い貴族で、ポーソン自身の教会から1マイル足らずのジョーダンズ集会所に埋葬されている。
22歳のウィリアム・ペン。後に宗教の自由の植民地ペンシルベニアを創設した若い貴族で、ポーソン自身の教会から1マイル足らずのジョーダンズ集会所に埋葬されている。英国派、1666. パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.

ジェームズ2世、ウィリアムとメアリー、1700年の情勢

公然たるローマ・カトリック教徒だったジェームズ2世は、チャールズ2世のように婉曲な方法ではなく、完全に公然と「命に代えても、あなたがたをローマへ戻す」と言いました。そのために彼が使ったのが、歴史に残る残忍な人物、右腕のジェフリーズ判事でした。それはイングランドにとって耐えがたいもので、国王に対する民衆の反乱の結果、ジェームズ2世は逃亡しなければなりませんでした。

ついにあの奇妙な一組、ウィリアムとメアリーが現れました。二人はともにイングランドの王位に就き、安定と寛容の新しい時代が始まりました。これが、その後の英国の教会生活の大枠を定めました。ただし例外が一つありました。ローマ・カトリック教徒はこの治世には復帰を許されず、次の治世を待つことになりました。約100年です。しかし寛容は他の人々にも広がりました。1689年には非国教徒が少なくとも部分的に認められ、迫害は止まり始めました。

ここに本がありますが、 フォックスの殉教者の書。 私の曽祖父の時代には、子供たちに日曜の読書が義務付けられていました。今、自分の子供たちにそれを与える勇気があるかどうかはわかりません。あるいは、そのようなことで頭がいっぱいになったために彼らの教師が私を追いかけるだろうと思います。これは、新約聖書の時代から1682までのキリスト教殉教者の最も恐ろしい記録です。著者は、フォックスの『殉教者の書』以降、これ以上殉教の物語を書く必要がなくなり、その世紀末までに得られた寛容が永続し、これ以上殉教者が出なくなることを望んでいたのではないかと危惧している。ある意味、イギリスではこれ以上のことはなかった。しかし、世界中で、イエスが十字架で死んでから10年間、クリスチャンが信仰のために死なかった期間はなく、それは今も世界のどこかで続いています。

そのため、寛容法によって非国教徒は初めて礼拝堂を建てられるようになり、翌年にはジョーダンズ集会所が建てられました。集会所に刻まれた日付を見れば、1689年の寛容法からわずか数か月後だったことが分かります。数年後にはアマシャム・オールド・タウン・バプテスト教会が始まり、世紀末までに非国教徒の礼拝所は1,000か所に増えました。

したがって、この講義の冒頭で、1600 でのプレイの状態を説明しました。それでは、1700 でのプレイの様子をお伝えします。英国国教会には現在も三つの党派があります。ハイ・チャーチブロード・チャーチ、そしてロウ・チャーチです。ハイ・チャーチは今もローマ的な礼拝慣行を好みます。ロウ・チャーチは、祭服も祭壇もなくテーブルだけを用いる、非常に簡素で飾り気のない礼拝を行い、司教制そのものに疑問を持つ、何とか教会内にとどまった少数のピューリタンに由来します。ブロード・チャーチについては、皆さんに考えておいていただきたいと思います。これは18世紀の物語の始まりだからです。

尋ねてみましょう。神はこのすべてについてどう思われましたか?悪魔はこのことについてどう思ったのでしょうか?キリスト教徒が殺し合うのを悪魔が大笑いしているような気がします。彼らが物理的にお互いを破壊し合うことに彼は興奮していたのではないかと私は感じています。しかし、寛容法が制定され、お互いが自由に礼拝できるようになると、悪魔は新しい戦術を考え出さなければならなくなり、最も悪魔的な戦術を考え出しました。それは、キリスト教徒を物理的に破壊する代わりに、精神的に破壊する何かを考え出すというものでした。

ジェームズ2世。公然とカトリックで、「命にかけてもイングランドをローマへ戻す」と決意し、1688年革命で倒された。
ジェームズ2世。公然とカトリックで、「命にかけてもイングランドをローマへ戻す」と決意し、1688年革命で倒された。工房:ゴドフリー・ネラー. パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.
裁判官ジョージ・ジェフリーズ、ジェームズ2世の右腕。「血まみれの巡回裁判」でモンマスの反乱を鎮圧したことで最も悪名高い人物で、主に改宗運動を行ったのではない。
裁判官ジョージ・ジェフリーズ、ジェームズ2世の右腕。「血まみれの巡回裁判」でモンマスの反乱を鎮圧したことで最も悪名高い人物で、主に改宗運動を行ったのではない。作者不詳、17世紀. パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.
ウィリアム3世とメアリー2世が即位。安定の時代が始まり、1689年寛容法は反対派の公開礼拝を認めたが、カトリックはさらに数十年待たされた。
ウィリアム3世とメアリー2世が即位。安定の時代が始まり、1689年寛容法は反対派の公開礼拝を認めたが、カトリックはさらに数十年待たされた。作者不詳、17世紀後半. パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.
1563年ジョン・フォックス『殉教者の書』初版の扉頁。かつて子どもの日曜必読書だったが、同時代のクエーカー創設者ジョージ・フォックスと混同してはならない。
1563年ジョン・フォックス『殉教者の書』初版の扉頁。かつて子どもの日曜必読書だったが、同時代のクエーカー創設者ジョージ・フォックスと混同してはならない。初版、ロンドン、1563. パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.

18世紀への架け橋:「奇妙な」大陸思想

17世紀を通じて、大陸ではキリスト教の名のもとに、非常に奇妙な思想が生み出されました。スウェーデンにはスウェーデンボルグという科学者がおり、信じがたい思想を生み出して、それをキリスト教と呼び、新エルサレム教会を創設しました。皆さんは出会ったことがないかもしれませんが、私はランカシャーでその影響をもっと多く見つけました。大陸には、イタリアのソシニウスという人物もいました。彼は、聖書は神の言葉ではなく、役に立つとしても、文字どおり神の言葉そのものではない、イエスは神の子ではなく、私たちが見倣うべき偉大な神の人にすぎない、そしてイエスは私たちの罪のためではなく、愛の模範を示すために死んだ、といったことを言いました。こうした言葉が語られ、こうした思想が英仏海峡を越えて伝わってきたのです。

オランダのアルミニウスという男性からも別の思想が出てきました。彼はカルヴァンの教えに反対しました。それ以来、私たちはカルヴァン主義アルミニウス主義という言葉を使っています。両者はこの違いをめぐって激しく衝突しそうになりました。カルヴァン主義は神の主権と意志を強調しました。アルミニウス主義は人間の自由意志を強調しました。そして、教会に来て礼拝している限り、古い信念を持っているかどうかはあまり問題ではないと真に考える一派が大陸からイギリス国教会にやって来ました。

17世紀の終わりまで、教会の秩序、司教、洗礼について意見の異なる人々も、キリスト教の信仰と福音とは何かについては概ね同意していました。しかし今や、教義においてもっと自由になり、昔ながらの福音より広い考え方ができると信じる一派が現れました。この潮流は、1730年代までに英国国教会を霊的にほとんど死んだ状態へ追い込み、その権力と遺産を内側から奪いました。

この話をしたのは、歴史の授業をするためではなく、理解してほしいからです。もし私たちが1700年に生きていたら、あなたと私は今夜ここで会えなかったでしょう。私たちにはそうする自由がなかったからです。議会法で定められた礼拝式次第に従わなければならず、議会法で定められた厳格な教会統治にも従わなければなりませんでした。今のように月に一度、教会の集会で会い、主が私たちに何をせよと望んでおられるかを決める自由もなかったでしょう。今、この自由は私たちのものです。そのことを主に感謝しましょう。

新約聖書が自由な国家における自由な教会を求め、宗教は良心の問題だと理解した人々がいました。それを新世界へ、大陸へ運んだ人々もいました。しかし何より、ここにとどまって投獄されながら戦い抜いた人々がいたからこそ、あなたと私が今週の日曜の夕方にゴールドヒル・バプテスト教会へ行き、良心の命じるままに神を礼拝できるのです。この自由を神に感謝します。自由の代価は永遠の警戒です。他の人々が失ったように、私たちもこの自由をいとも簡単に失うかもしれません。過去を振り返るだけでなく、将来も神が私たちをあるべき場所に保ってくださることを賛美しなければなりません。

私はまた、これを言うためにこの話をしました。これらすべての戦いにもかかわらず、これらすべての困難にもかかわらず、神の教会は存続し、あらゆる世代で聖霊が男性と女性を改心させ、彼らを福音の燃えるような説教者にして送り出します。このような状況にもかかわらず、教会はまだそこにありました。キリスト教徒はまだそこにいました。福音はまだそこにありました。聖書はまだそこにありました。というのは、イエスはこう言われたからです。 「私は私の教会を建てます。そうすれば地獄の門もそれに打ち勝つことはできません。」


この三部作の最後の講義はから始まります。テサロニケで「世界をひっくり返した」と非難されたパウロとシラス、ベレアで、ユダヤ人たちが「より高貴」で、パウロの説教が真実かどうかを毎日聖書で調べていたこと、そしてアテネで、パウロがアレオパゴスに立って「知られざる神」について説教したことです。そこにはアレオパゴス評議会のメンバーであるディオニシウスもいました。ポーソンはベレア人について、自分の会衆にこう伝えます。自分の説教についても、まさに同じことをしてほしい、家に帰って聖書を調べ、そこにないなら信じないでほしい、と。

彼は、18世紀が始まるわずか数週間前の1699年12月に、「マスター・ガリバー」がリリパットの地で難破した経緯を語ります。ガリバー旅行記は、アイルランド人のジョナサン・スウィフトによって書かれました。これは児童書ではなく、18世紀初頭の英国社会への痛烈な風刺です。数年後、ロビンソン・クルーソーも島で難破しましたが、1715年にイギリスへ戻った時には、ガリバーより幸福そうでした。どちらの本も、ポーソンが教会の話に入る前の導入です。イングランドは崩壊寸前だった。

ポーソンはその夜全体を簡潔なイメージで要約しました。18世紀を通じて、人間は冷たい蛇口をひねり、神は熱い蛇口をひねった。 冷たい蛇口をひねったのは合理主義者、つまり知性と理性だけに頼る人々です。神がひねった熱い蛇口はリバイバル主義、つまり福音を宣べ伝えるために偉大な人物を起こし、英国社会の温度を高める働きです。18世紀から得られる最大の教訓は、人の信念がその行動に影響を与えるということです。人は心で考えるとおりの者になります。「人が心の中で考えるように、その人もそうである」という言葉が、その夜の本文だったのかもしれません。

講義の中心的な比喩

冷たい蛇口と熱い蛇口

🧊

冷たい蛇口:合理主義

  • ニュートン、ベーコン、デカルト:固定した法則に支配される宇宙
  • 理神論:神は世界を造り、時計のように動かしたまま去った
  • 寛容主義、穏健主義、ユニテリアニズムが教会へ忍び込む
  • 社会:タイバーンの絞首刑、賭博、安いジン、道徳的退廃

🔥

熱い蛇口:福音的リバイバル

  • ツィンツェンドルフとモラヴィア兄弟団、ドイツ
  • ホワイトフィールド、ウェスレー兄弟—イングランド
  • エドワーズ、ブレイナード、フレリンハイゼン—北米
  • ハリス、ローランズ、グリフィス・ジョーンズ—ウェールズ

パウソンの主張:信仰が行動を形づくる。冷たい理性が行動する神への信仰を消すと、社会の道徳も冷えた。しかしその時、神は「熱い蛇口をひねった」—委員会や公会議ではなく、神が起こした個人を通して。

『ガリヴァー旅行記』(1726年)の作者ジョナサン・スウィフト。英国社会への辛辣な風刺であり、しばしば誤解される児童書ではない。
『ガリヴァー旅行記』(1726年)の作者ジョナサン・スウィフト。英国社会への辛辣な風刺であり、しばしば誤解される児童書ではない。チャールズ・ジャーヴァス、約1710. パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.

第三部:18世紀、冷たい蛇口と熱い蛇口

冷たい蛇口:科学、理神論、そして「社会の立法者」

科学の影響もありました。コペルニクスは、惑星は地球ではなく太陽の周りを回っていると言いました。ガリレオは望遠鏡でそれを確認しました。アイザック・ニュートンは、リンゴを通じて重力の法則を発見したとされます。しかし何より、フランシス・ベーコンデカルトは、私たちが住む宇宙は破ることのできない法則に支配されていると述べました。リンゴが木から落ちれば、重力の法則に従って落ちるのであり、その法則は破れません。聖書の多くはそうした自然法則に反しているように見えるため、この考えは一撃で奇跡を一掃し、聖書で起きている多くのことを退けました。ベーコンはさらに踏み込み、観察によって証明できることだけが真実だと述べました。観察によって科学的に証明できないものを信じる必要はなく、権威に基づいて何も受け入れてはならない、というのです。それは見方によっては大きな前進でも後退でもありました。しかし今日のシックスフォームの学生(高校生)がまったく同じことを言うのは驚くべきことです。「証明できない限り信じられない。神を示してくれない限り神を信じられない。」彼らはフランシス・ベーコンを繰り返しているだけです。率直に言って、その考えは宗教を死なせます。観察によって証明できない唯一のものは、神、悪魔、天使、その他宗教に属するすべてが存在する永遠の世界だからです。

では、神はどこに当てはまるのでしょうか。18世紀に人々は神を信じるのをやめたのでしょうか。いいえ。しかし、有神論(神が世界を創造し、今も支配しているという信念)から、理神論(神は創造したが、その後は介入しないという信念)へ傾く人々が現れました。無神論は、創造主そのものを認めません。よく使われた比喩では、世界は巨大な時計です。神が時計を巻き上げた後は、時計が独自の法則で動くだけで、神は何もできない――そのような理解は祈りを弱め、生ける神への信仰を損ないます。

神は遠く離れており、何もすることができないというこの種の考え方は、さまざまな場所でさまざまな名前で、教会に忍び込みました。英国国教会では、それを緯度主義と呼び、スコットランド教会では穏健主義、バプテスト派の間ではユニテリアン主義と呼びました。なぜなら、神がクリスマスに「降臨」するはずはなく、イエスは単に偉大な人だったに違いない、という信念があったからです。そして、薄められた信仰は消え始めました。どの宗派もこの考えに悩まされました。一部のバプテスト教会はそのために閉鎖されました。礼拝は非常に形式的で、非常に死んだものになりました。あなたは、すべてを造った神に敬意を表すためだけに来たのですが、神が何かをしてくれることを期待することは決してありませんでした。神にはそれができなかった。彼は自分が作ったものの外側にいました。

発見されたのは「自然法則」だけではありませんでした。他の作家たちは、「人間性の法則」、つまり社会の法則も発見したと考えました。ジョン・ロックは社会を支配する法則について書きました。ヴォルテールはフランスの「ルイ14世の時代」に生きた人物です。別のフランス人、ルソーは、「人間は自由に生まれ、いたるところで鎖につながれている」という有名な言葉を残しました。さらにスコットランド人のアダム・スミスは、輸出入の均衡と分業について、非常に大きな本を書きました。その内容は驚くほど現代的で、今日の財務相はアダム・スミスを読んだことがあるのだろうかと思うほどです。そしてメアリー・ウルストンクラフトは、女性の権利、ほとんど神聖な権利とも言えるもののために戦い、女性の投票、学校の遊び場、共学を擁護する本を書きました。当時としては革命的でした。これらの人々は皆、社会の法則、人間性の法則を発見しようとしていました。しかし、彼らは皆同じことを言っていました。社会の法則は自然法則と同じように神を必要としません。自然界は神なしに動き、社会の世界、人間の本性も神なしに機能します。そして、こうした考えからフランス革命のようなものが生まれ、ルソーはフランス革命の父と呼ばれました。

教会は知性の武器で反撃しようとしました。二人の司教、 バトラー司教とバークレー司教は、神に不利な証拠と神に有利な証拠を照合し、全体を知的議論のようなものにして、本当に知的に説教しようとしました。率直に言って、それはまだあまり良い結果をもたらしませんでした。人を霊的な生活に引き入れることは決してできません。彼らの疑問や障壁の一部を取り除くことができるかもしれません。しかし、知的議論だけで教会を建てることは決してできません。

アイザック・ニュートン。自然法則を定式化した科学者で、神学的には異端的ながら敬虔な信者でもあった。彼の後の理神論世代が、法則に支配された宇宙を神が介入する必要のない理由へ変えた。
アイザック・ニュートン。自然法則を定式化した科学者で、神学的には異端的ながら敬虔な信者でもあった。彼の後の理神論世代が、法則に支配された宇宙を神が介入する必要のない理由へ変えた。ゴドフリー・ネラー、1689. パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.
フランシス・ベーコン、近代経験的方法の創始者。「観察で証明できないものは何も信じるな」。宗教に適用され、超自然を徐々に締め出した原理である。
フランシス・ベーコン、近代経験的方法の創始者。「観察で証明できないものは何も信じるな」。宗教に適用され、超自然を徐々に締め出した原理である。英国派、17世紀初頭. パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.
人間社会を支配する「法則」を論じた哲学者ジョン・ロック。彼の思想はジェファソンの筆を通して米国独立宣言に直接入った。
人間社会を支配する「法則」を論じた哲学者ジョン・ロック。彼の思想はジェファソンの筆を通して米国独立宣言に直接入った。ゴドフリー・ネラー、1697. パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.
ヴォルテール。「ルイ14世の時代」に置かれがちだが、成熟期は実際にはルイ15世のもとで展開した。本人は前代の有名な歴史を書いた。
ヴォルテール。「ルイ14世の時代」に置かれがちだが、成熟期は実際にはルイ15世のもとで展開した。本人は前代の有名な歴史を書いた。ニコラ・ド・ラルジリエ、1718年. パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.
ジャン=ジャック・ルソー。「人は自由に生まれ、至る所で鎖につながれている」。フランス革命の精神的父と呼ばれた。
ジャン=ジャック・ルソー。「人は自由に生まれ、至る所で鎖につながれている」。フランス革命の精神的父と呼ばれた。アラン・ラムゼイ、1766. パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.
貿易収支と労働分業を論じたスコットランドの経済学者アダム・スミス。ポーソンが言う18世紀の「社会の立法者」の一人である。
貿易収支と労働分業を論じたスコットランドの経済学者アダム・スミス。ポーソンが言う18世紀の「社会の立法者」の一人である。作者不詳 (「ミュア肖像」)、約1800. パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.
女性の投票権と教育を受ける権利のために戦ったメアリー・ウルストンクラフト。当時は急進的な考えで、後に現実となった。
女性の投票権と教育を受ける権利のために戦ったメアリー・ウルストンクラフト。当時は急進的な考えで、後に現実となった。ジョン・オピー、約1797. パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.

アメリカとフランスが反乱を起こす中、イギリスは漂流する

ジェファーソンはロックの哲学をそのまま独立宣言に書きました。まずロックの本を読んでから宣言を読めば、アメリカがその考えをどこから得たのかが分かります。フランスでは1789年7月、これらの新しい考えがフランス革命となって爆発しました。今や理性が女神となるはずでした。パリのノートルダム大聖堂の祭壇には理性の女神が据えられ、神はもういないと宣言され、恐怖政治が始まりました。その後ナポレオンがローマに入り、教皇領を没収し、教皇を囚人としてフランスへ連行しました。これが当時の動乱でした。アメリカでは植民地の反乱と独立宣言、フランスではフランス革命が起こりました。そしてイングランドでは、こうした思想の動乱の中で何が起きたのでしょうか。答えは、ほとんど何も起きなかったということです。ほかの場所で革命が起きる一方、イングランドはただ下へと漂流しました。これもまた、実に典型的な英国らしさでした。私たちは物事をそのまま放置したのです。

そのためイングランドは反乱ではなく漂流しました。宗教的には、当時「熱意」と呼ばれたものへの嫌悪がありました。今日なら感情主義と呼ぶでしょう。人々は教会へ行き、狂信も感情の高ぶりもない、牧師の知的で穏当な話を聞くだけの礼拝を好みました。しかしそれは均衡の取れた宗教ではなく、無気力と無関心が会衆に忍び込みました。かつて人々は宗教のために戦いましたが、今やただ席に座ってあくびをしているだけでした。上流階級の宗教は貧しく、無知で、歓迎されないものになりました。

バトラー司教はカンタベリー大主教職を打診され、「瀕死の教会を救うにはもう遅すぎます。私が生きている間に教会は消えてしまうでしょう」と答えたと言われています。それが当時の教会の状態でした。霊的な状態がそうであれば、道徳的な状態はさらに悪くなります。18世紀に午後の娯楽を求めるなら、家族を集め、現在のハイド・パーク・コーナー、マーブル・アーチの近くにあるタイバーンまでピクニックに出かけ、人々が絞首刑にされるのを見物したのです。子どもも、女性も、男性もいました。五シリング相当の品を盗んだだけでも、一シリングの品を盗んだだけでも、絞首刑になる可能性がありました。別の娯楽を求めるなら闘鶏場で闘鶏を見ました。もちろん、ロンドンや他の工業地帯から逃れる最も手早い場所はパブでした。酒があまりに安かったので、路地に掲げられた看板には「一ペニーで酔える。二ペンスで泥酔できる。横になる藁は無料」と書かれていました。そこから、ひどい飲酒、激しい賭博、激しい乱闘が生まれました。この冷たく知的主義的な宗教の時代の英国社会を学びたければ、フィールディングのトム・ジョーンズを読み、ホガースの風刺画放蕩息子一代記を見て、ボズウェルのジョンソン伝を読んでください。ある同時代の作家は、「宗教の衰退、道徳の放縦、公の腐敗、そして言葉の冒涜」とすべてを要約しました。それが18世紀最初の30〜40年間のイングランドでした。エドワード・ギボンがローマ帝国衰亡史を書いていたのも不思議ではありません。彼がイングランド社会の衰退と没落まで書かなかったのが不思議なくらいです。

では、何がイギリスの革命を止めたのでしょうか。なぜ貧しい人々は立ち上がらず、アメリカやフランスのような社会の完全な転覆が起こらなかったのでしょうか。答えは、今世紀に神が熱い蛇口をひねったことです。

米国独立宣言。ジェファソンはロックの哲学をこの建国文書に直接書き込んだ。
米国独立宣言。ジェファソンはロックの哲学をこの建国文書に直接書き込んだ。「ストーン」銅版画、1823年(1776年原作による)。パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons。
1793年11月、ノートルダムで行われた理性の女神祭。「もう神はいない」。しかし数か月以内にロベスピエール自身が抑え、理神論の「至高存在」への礼拝に置き換えた。
1793年11月、ノートルダムで行われた理性の女神祭。「もう神はいない」。しかし数か月以内にロベスピエール自身が抑え、理神論の「至高存在」への礼拝に置き換えた。1793年の出来事を描いた19世紀の挿絵。パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons。
ホガース『放蕩者の一生』第8図(精神病院)。ポーソンが引用する18世紀初頭英国の道徳的退廃を描いた漫画シリーズである。
ホガース『放蕩者の一生』第8図(精神病院)。ポーソンが引用する18世紀初頭英国の道徳的退廃を描いた漫画シリーズである。ウィリアム・ホガース、1735. パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.
『勤勉と怠惰』第11図、タイバーンでの処刑。家族が絞首刑を見ながらピクニックをし、数シリングを盗む程度の罪も処刑された場所である。
『勤勉と怠惰』第11図、タイバーンでの処刑。家族が絞首刑を見ながらピクニックをし、数シリングを盗む程度の罪も処刑された場所である。ウィリアム・ホガース、1747. パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.

ホットタップ: ウェールズ、アメリカ、そしてフォン・ツィンツェンドルフ伯爵

神の方法は常にこれです。人格を選び、その人格を聖霊で満たし、それができるようにするのです。これは常に神の方法でした。神が委員会やより大きな人々のグループを通じて働いたことは非常にまれです。彼の手法は常に、その仕事をできるように人々を育てることであり、その人々が本来あるべきキリストとの関係に留まる限り、それは今後も続くだろう。

ウェールズでは、神はハウエル・ハリス、グリフィス・ジョーンズ、ダニエル・ローランズを立て、歴史の流れを変えました。アメリカでは、セオドルス・ヤコブス・フリーリングハイセン、彼を通じて影響を受けたジョナサン・エドワーズ、そして偉大な祈りの人デイヴィッド・ブレイナードを立てました。ブレイナードは先住民への宣教師となり、3年後に亡くなりましたが、アメリカの歴史を変えました。ポーソンは、18世紀のアメリカだけで30万人が主のもとへ導かれたと推定しています。これは当時の人口を考えると大きなリバイバルで、世紀末にはキャンプ集会が盛んになりました。

私が話したい二つの国は、まずドイツ、次にイングランドです。両国は密接に関係しているからです。ドイツで神が起こした人物、フォン・ツィンツェンドルフ伯爵について話しましょう。(ここの賛美歌集には、彼の賛美歌「イエスよ、なお導きたまえ」と「イエスよ、あなたの血と義よ」のいくつかが載っています。)ツィンツェンドルフはザクセンに巨大な領地を持ち、そこをヘルンフートと呼びました。ある日、その領地に、主イエス・キリストを礼拝する乞食たちがやって来ました。彼らはボヘミアのヤン・フスの教会の残党でした。フスの時代から何世紀もたってなお、彼らはただ主イエス・キリストを中心に集まっていました。自分たちの国を追われた彼らは、フォン・ツィンツェンドルフのもとへ来たのです。彼は少し前に回心していました。そして言いました。「さあ、ここへ入りなさい。私の領地を使ってよい。ここに家を建てなさい。私があなた方を守ろう。共にキリスト教共同体を築こう。」彼らはその通りにし、モラヴィア共同体と呼ばれるものを築きました。そして彼らは、ヨーロッパで最初の本格的な宣教団体となりました。それ以前にも宣教の試みはありましたが、この小さなモラヴィア人の集団は、活動の最初の数年間だけで25人もの宣教師を送り出し、地の果てまでキリストの福音を届けました。

フォン・ツィンツェンドルフはかつてこう言いました。「私の情熱はただ一つ。それはイエスです。」そしてそれが彼の人生を要約します。彼が偉大な人物だったのも不思議ではありません。

アメリカ第一次大覚醒の説教者・神学者ジョナサン・エドワーズ。プロテスタント史で最も影響力ある宣教師伝記の一つ、デイヴィッド・ブレイナードの日記を編集出版した。
アメリカ第一次大覚醒の説教者・神学者ジョナサン・エドワーズ。プロテスタント史で最も影響力ある宣教師伝記の一つ、デイヴィッド・ブレイナードの日記を編集出版した。プリンストン肖像、18世紀。パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons。
「私には一つの情熱しかない。それはイエスだ」と語ったツィンツェンドルフ伯。領地でモラヴィア難民を保護し、近代宣教運動を生んだ。
「私には一つの情熱しかない。それはイエスだ」と語ったツィンツェンドルフ伯。領地でモラヴィア難民を保護し、近代宣教運動を生んだ。作者不詳、18世紀. パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.

ジョージ・ホワイトフィールド:「砂のロープ」

神が最初にその手を置いたのは、他の学生の靴を磨いて学費を稼ぎながら、オックスフォードで学んでいた若者でした。彼の名前はジョージ・ホワイトフィールド。その若者は前途有望で、勤勉で、規律正しい人物でした。しかし神は彼にこう語りかけました。「ジョージ・ホワイトフィールド、あなたは罪人であり、救いを必要としている。」ジョージ・ホワイトフィールドは、大きな霊的闘いを通じて、主イエス・キリストを知るようになりました。彼は説教を始めました。回心から1年後、彼は説教していました。どこだったかは忘れましたが、彼の最初の聖句は覚えています。、「もし誰でもキリストのうちにあるなら、その人は新しく造られたものです」。彼はそれをグロスターで説教し、そのとき、ほとんどの聴衆をひどく怒らせるようなことを言いました。「あなたがたが洗礼を受けているかどうかは問題ではない。三位一体の名によって額に水をかけられたかどうかも問題ではない。」彼は言いました。「あなたがたは新しく生まれなければならない。」そして、「私は新しく生まれました。あなたがたにもそうなってほしいのです」と言いました。彼が説教を終えたとき、17人が新しく生まれました。 それが始まりでした。やがて一度に3万人、4万人を相手に説教するようになりました。イングランドを旅しただけでなく、スコットランドにも行き、エディンバラで4万人に説教し、その後大西洋を13回渡り、最後はアメリカで亡くなりました。行けるところならどこででも説教したのです。ジョージ・ホワイトフィールドは、イングランドがこれまで見てきた中で最も偉大な神の僕の一人でした。

悲劇的なのは、彼が改宗者のためのフォローアップを組織しなかったため、彼の作品のほとんどが彼の死後に消えてしまったことです。ある意味で、彼に教会を始めるよう本当に促した唯一の人物は、ハンティンドン伯爵夫人でした。ドアの向こうに「ハンティンドン伯爵夫人連盟」と書かれた教会を見たことがあるなら、ジョージ・ホワイトフィールドを支援したその女性の時代を思い出しているでしょう。しかし、亡くなった時、彼はこう語った。「私の仕事は砂のロープのようで、すぐに消えてしまうだろう。」そして実際にそうなりました。今日はホワイトフィールド派の話は聞きませんね。今日、ハンティンドン伯爵夫人とのつながりと、ほかに一つか二つの小さなグループを除いて、彼の名前を冠したグループのことは聞きません。しかし、それにもかかわらず、彼は何千人もの人々を主のもとに導きました。彼らが離れて行ったという意味ではなく、他の教会への道を見つけたという意味です。

生年の順では第一位ではないが、功績の順ではためらいなく第一位に置く。百年前のすべての霊的英雄の中で、ホワイトフィールドほど時代が必要としていたものを早く見抜いた人はいなかった。現代にはルター派とウェスレアンはいるが、ホワイトフィールド派はいない。前世紀の偉大な伝道者は、単純で悪意のない人で、ただ一つ、キリストを宣べ伝えることだけのために生きた。J・C・ライル『18世紀のキリスト教指導者たち』(1885年)

ジョージ・ホワイトフィールド。かつて同級生の靴を磨いた貧しいオックスフォードの給仕から、数万人に野外説教する伝道者となり、大西洋を13回渡った。
ジョージ・ホワイトフィールド。かつて同級生の靴を磨いた貧しいオックスフォードの給仕から、数万人に野外説教する伝道者となり、大西洋を13回渡った。ジョン・ラッセル、1770. パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.
ハンティンドン伯爵夫人セリナ・ヘイスティングス。ホワイトフィールドに教会建設を本当に促した人物で、今日まで続くカルヴァン派メソジスト礼拝堂の網を残した。
ハンティンドン伯爵夫人セリナ・ヘイスティングス。ホワイトフィールドに教会建設を本当に促した人物で、今日まで続くカルヴァン派メソジスト礼拝堂の網を残した。作者不詳、18世紀 (ナショナル・ポートレート・ギャラリー). パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.

ジョン・ウェスリー:「炎上の中から摘み取られたブランド」

もう一人の偉大な人物についてお話ししなければなりませんが、ここではもう少し時間をとりたいと思います。なぜなら彼はそうするに値するからです。 ジョン・ウェスリー, 私の偉大なヒーローの一人。物語は、私と妻が結婚したリンカンシャーの小さな村から始まります。 エプワース。私たちはウェスリー記念教会で結婚しました。そしてその牧師館で何かが起こり、何か新しいものが生まれました。

ジョン・ウェスリーの祖父母は独立派であったが、これは大いに説明がつく。しかし彼の両親は二人とも信念を持つ英国国教会信徒で、エプワースという小さな町の牧師とその妻を務めていました。 サミュエル・ウェスリーは非常に優れた人物で、少し詩人でもあり、ヨブに関する詩を書くのに多くの年月を費やしましたが、決して人気者ではありませんでした。彼はその詩的才能を息子たちに伝えました。しかし母親は本当に驚くべき人でした。スザンナ・ウェスリーです。彼女には19人の子どもがいて、1歳を過ぎれば泣かないようにしつけ、5歳になると読み書きを教え、最初の週の終わりにはを読めるようにしました。彼らがどれだけ理解していたのか、私には分かりません。彼女がどうやってそれを成し遂げたのかも分かりません。初歩のアルファベット教材も現代のおもちゃもありませんでした。彼女は子供たちが霊的に成長できるよう、一人ひとりに毎週1時間を与えました。スザンナ・ウェスリーの人生を学ぶとき、あなたはメソジズムの始まりを学ぶことになります。それが後に現れるものだからです。

ジョン(彼女は「ジャッキー」と呼んでいた)が7歳のとき、牧師館が火災に見舞われました。彼らは、ジャッキーと小さなジョンを除いて、子供たちを全員外に連れ出しました。この映画を見た人は、二階の窓で彼を見たときの劇的な瞬間と、村人たちが彼を助けようとしてお互いの背中によじ登った様子を覚えているでしょう。彼女は彼を胸に抱き寄せて言った、「あなたは炎上から引き抜かれたブランドです。」そしてそれ以来、彼女はジョンが自分にとって最も偉大な息子になると信じていました。そして彼もそうだった。

スザンナ・ウェスレー。19人の子の母で、成人まで生きたのは約10人。規律正しい家庭の敬虔さが、息子たちの「メソジスト」という名の型になった。
スザンナ・ウェスレー。19人の子の母で、成人まで生きたのは約10人。規律正しい家庭の敬虔さが、息子たちの「メソジスト」という名の型になった。作者不詳、18世紀. パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.

彼はチャーターハウス・スクールに通い、その後オックスフォードへ進んで弟チャールズと合流しました。そこで二人はホーリー・クラブと呼ぶ集まりを作りました。案の定、その名前は他の学生たちも不快にさせました。彼らは朝4時に起きて祈り、日中は普通の学生として学び、その後は刑務所を訪れ、病人のための診療所を運営しました。そして善良であることによって、必死に自分を救おうとしていたのです。ホーリー・クラブのメンバーの一人がジョージ・ホワイトフィールドで、そこで彼らの道が交差しました。この小さな学生グループは、善行によって天国へ行こうと必死でした。まだ、どうすればキリスト者になれるのかを理解していなかったのです。起床し、刑務所へ行き、あれこれ行って、そのすべてを記録するやり方があまりに几帳面だったため、他の学生たちは彼らをホーリー・クラブと呼ぶのをやめ、メソジストというあだ名を付けました。これは侮辱の言葉でした。しかし、その呼び名は定着し、今日まで残っています。

やがてジョンは、自分がまだ神のために十分働いていないと感じ、父や兄と同じように聖職に就くことを申し出ました。ジョンとチャールズはカンタベリー大主教によって英国国教会の司祭に按手されましたが、まだキリスト者ではありませんでした。そしてそのことを心の奥で知っていたため、自分たちは神に十分仕えていないと感じ、宣教師としてジョージアの先住民のもとへ行くことを志願しました。「宣教師として行けば、きっと救われるだろう」と考えたのです。こうして彼らは、自分たちの魂を救うために出発しました。キリスト者でなくても、そこまで進めるのでしょうか。もちろんです。彼らがその実例でした。二人は司祭であるだけでなく、宣教師でもありました。それでも、必死に努力しながら、自分たちの魂を救えてはいなかったのです。

出航の途中、大西洋の真ん中で嵐に遭いました。誰もがパニックになり、船を軽くするため荷物を海へ投げ捨て、最期が来たと思いました。しかし船の中央には、静かに穏やかに祈っている一団がいました。フォン・ツィンツェンドルフ伯爵と知り合いだった、ヘルンフート出身のモラヴィア人難民たちです。その後、聖職者の服を着たジョン・ウェスリーが彼らのもとへ行き、「なぜ恐れなかったのですか」と尋ねました。彼らは「なぜ恐れる必要があるのですか」と答え、その一人がウェスリーの魂について尋ね始めました。「イエスがあなたの救い主だと知っていますか。」ウェスリーは「イエスが世界の救い主であることは知っています」と答えました。しかし、「イエスがあなたの救い主だと知っていますか」と問われ、ウェスリーは「はい」と答えました。その夜の日記で、彼はそれが嘘だったと認め、「私は自分の魂を救うためにジョージアへ行く」と書きました。「では、どうして先住民の魂を救えるでしょうか。」彼は3年間の惨めな失敗の後、どうすべきか思い悩みながらロンドンへ戻りました。兄もまた、同じように失敗して戻ってきました。

しかし神をたたえましょう。ロンドンでは、彼らを待っている人物が用意されていました。

ここには、宣教師として失敗し、英国国教会の司祭に叙階され、他の人々に多くの善いことをしてきたにもかかわらず、自分の罪が赦されたことを一度も知らなかった男性がいた。自分を救おうとすると、キリストがなさることではなく、自分がなさることに信頼を置いているので、このようなことが起こります。そして、これは彼が決して学ばなかった唯一のことでした。

ロンドンの「アルダースゲートの炎」像。1738年5月24日夜、ジョン・ウェスレーが「心が不思議に温められた」と感じた場所を示す。今はバークレイズ銀行支店である。
ロンドンの「アルダースゲートの炎」像。1738年5月24日夜、ジョン・ウェスレーが「心が不思議に温められた」と感じた場所を示す。今はバークレイズ銀行支店である。現代写真、ロンドン. パブリックドメイン/CC、Wikimedia Commons.

その後すぐに、彼はフォン・ツィンツェンドルフを訪ねるためドイツへ行き、英語に翻訳した多くの賛美歌を携えて戻ってきました。しかし、彼が戻ってきたのは福音を宣べ伝えるためでした。説教はしましたが、説教壇は彼の前で閉ざされました。英国国教会の建物で説教するたび、後から「ここへの訪問はこれが最初で最後だ」と告げられたのです。ついに、まったく説教できない境地に達しました。そこでジョージ・ホワイトフィールドが「ジョン、野外で説教しに来ませんか」と誘いました。ジョン・ウェスリーは、叙階された牧師が説教壇から説教しないことは世界で最も恐ろしいことだと考えました。しかしそのとき、キリストご自身が山上の説教をされたことを思い出し、「キリストが山で説教できるなら、私もできるだろう」と言いました。彼はブリストル郊外のキングスウッドへ下り、鉱山労働者に説教しました。説教しながら、涙が「黒い頬を小さな白い川となって流れ落ちた」様子を日記に記しています。ウェスリーは、神が自分を、アメリカへ出発するホワイトフィールドと同じ奉仕へ招いていることに気づきました。彼はホワイトフィールドの説教の糸口を受け継ぎ、野外伝道を始めたのは1739年でした。

ウェンズベリー暴動のときのように、彼は反対に遭い、髪の毛をつかまれて通りを引きずられることもありました。しかし彼は手に聖書を持ち、膝の間に馬を置き、50年かけて馬で25万マイルを旅しました。馬に乗って村へ行き、そこで説教するのが彼の方法でした。彼は十戒から始め、すべての男女が裁かれる律法を説き、人々が不幸になり、困窮しているように見えるまで、何日も律法を説き続けました。そして、彼らが自分を罪人だと感じ始めたことに気づくと、日記にこう記しています。「私は神の愛を神の律法と少し混ぜ始めました。」そしてもう少し、さらにもう少し。ついに私は神の愛の福音を宣べ伝えました。ウェスリーは、律法を説かなければ神の愛を説くことはできないと発見しました。自分の悲惨さを一度も感じたことのない人たちに救い主を説いても意味がありません。「救い主は、苦しみを感じたことのない人々に、どんな慰めをもたらせるでしょうか」と、そのことが宣教の至る所に書かれていました。

ウェスリーの三つの中心地はロンドン、ブリストル、ニューカッスルで、その三角形の内外に、彼が説教した場所が数多くあります。最後の説教はサリー州レザーヘッドで行われました。彼は「世界は私の教区である」という原則に立って説教しました。結婚生活の不幸が彼を旅に駆り立てた面もあったのかもしれません。それは彼の人生における本当の影でしたが、そのおかげで旅を続けられたことに感謝する人も多いでしょう。彼は旅を重ね、説教を重ね、1日に7回説教することも珍しくありませんでした。本やパンフレットを書いて出版し、学校、孤児院、診療所も開設しました。リウマチに電気治療を初めて用いた人物でもあり、その機械は今もシティ・ロードの自宅で見ることができます。しかも、その機械は人を死なせるほどの電気を生み出すことが分かっています。彼は最も多才な人物の一人でしたが、もちろん一人ですべてを行ったわけではありません。

問題は、彼には協力してくれる聖職者がほとんどいなかったことでした。そこで母親がある考えを思いつきました。「叙階されていない説教者はどうでしょうか。彼のように各地を旅するのではなく、地元で説教する信徒説教者です。」最初期の6人チームの一人はジョン・ポーソンで、彼の妻フランシス・ポーソンも当時の主要なメソジスト女性の一人でした。(私たちの一族のつながりはそこまでさかのぼるのだと思います。)このようなチームについて、ジョン・ウェスリーは母親にこう返しました。「そんな男を100人よこしてくれ。私たちは彼らに火をつけるから。」そして実際にそうなりました。彼が亡くなったとき、彼の旅行の結果として8万人が交わりに集まっていました。

彼はジョージ・ホワイトフィールドがしたことをしませんでした。むしろ、ホワイトフィールドがしなかったことをしました。人々が改宗すると、主に地元の教会が受け入れてくれなかったため、彼は彼らを交わりへと組織しました。彼はそれらを「教会」ではなく「協会」、つまりメソジスト協会と呼び、霊的に導く役割を担う階級指導者を置きました。一つの地区に多くの協会を置き、その地区を「サーキット」と呼びました。地元の説教者が月に一度、馬で地区を巡り、あらゆる場所で説教できたからです。こうして、地元の説教者たちが馬で巡回するサーキットという仕組みを築きました。この仕組みは今日も使われていますが、20世紀には適さないと思います。それでも馬で移動する時代には非常に良い発想で、彼の置かれた環境に理想的な組織でした。

覚えておいてください。ジョン・ウェスリーはずっと英国国教会の牧師でした。彼らは彼をどう思ったでしょうか。特に彼がアメリカのために牧師を任命したとき、彼を非常に悪く思ったのではないかと思います。彼は英国国教会を離れませんでしたが、彼が死ぬとすぐにメソジスト協会がメソジスト教会になることは明らかでした。そして実際にそうなりました。分裂は彼の死後すぐに起こりました。しかし私は、ジョン・ウェスリーに責任があった、少なくとも分離をもたらすために必要なことをすべて行った人物だったと思います。「ジョン・ウェスリーは、ボートを漕ぐ人のようだった」という言葉が好きです。彼は英国国教会の方を向き続けましたが、オールを一度引くたびに英国国教会から遠ざかっていきました。まさに彼がしたことです。そのため18世紀の終わりには、英国国教会に加えて、長老派、会衆派、バプテスト、友の会、そして非常に大きなメソジストの集団が残りました。世紀の終わりまでには、ローマ・カトリック教徒も再び戻ることを許されました。私たちは、自分たちがどのような状況に生きているのかを理解し始めています。

ジョン・ウェスレー。「世界は私の教区」。50年間で約25万マイルを馬で旅し、4万回以上説教し、メソジスト運動を創設した。
ジョン・ウェスレー。「世界は私の教区」。50年間で約25万マイルを馬で旅し、4万回以上説教し、メソジスト運動を創設した。ジョージ・ロムニー、1789. パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.
約9000曲の賛美歌を作ったチャールズ・ウェスレー。よく言われる6000曲を超え、『聞け、天使の歌声』や『千の舌をもって歌いたい』を含む。
約9000曲の賛美歌を作ったチャールズ・ウェスレー。よく言われる6000曲を超え、『聞け、天使の歌声』や『千の舌をもって歌いたい』を含む。作者不詳、18世紀. パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.

チャールズ・シメオンとリバイバルの5つの成果

さて、今世紀の終わりに現れたもう一人の偉人を見てみましょう。ポーソンの話では1779年、ケンブリッジに若い放蕩学生がやって来ました。チャールズ・シメオンです。狩猟、射撃、釣りを楽しむ陽気な青年でした。ケンブリッジで自分の人生と向き合い、霊的な葛藤を経験した末、赦しの感覚を得ました。彼の言葉を借りれば、「自分の罪をイエスの頭に置いた」のです。まもなく聖職に就き、23歳でホーリー・トリニティ教会の牧師になりました。数か月前、私はそこで説教する特権を得ました。祭壇の近くには、彼のティーポットや傘、肖像が残っています。彼が説教すると教会は満員になり、学生たちに大きな影響を与えました。その会衆から、ヘンリー・マーティンが現れ、ペルシアで亡くなることになる偉大な宣教師の一人となりました。チャールズ・シメオンは、18世紀の英雄たちの長い一覧に加えるべき人物です。

それでは最後に、ここから得られる実践的な事柄を挙げましょう。私は、人々が今でもこう言うのを正確に知っています。「このような福音の説教や賛美歌を歌うことに何の意味があるのか。私たちに必要なのは、世界をより良い場所にするために行動する人々だ。」しかし、18世紀はその考えが誤りであることを示しました。ここでは、五つの結果を簡潔に示します。

第一に、賛美歌です。 世界が評価しなくても、キリスト者はそれ以来、賛美歌を大切にしてきました。18世紀には歌が爆発的に生まれました。 アイザック・ワッツの「私は私の造り主を讃えます」「神よ、過去の時代における私たちの助けよ」「驚くべき十字架を見るとき」「イエスは太陽の下のどこにでも統べ治める」を思い出してください。フィリップ・ドッドリッジ、ウィリアム・クーパー、ジョン・ニュートンもいました。そして何よりもチャールズ・ウェスリーです。彼は生涯に6,000編の賛美歌を書き、馬上でも筆を執りました。家に着くと「話しかけないで、早くペンと紙をください」と言ったそうです。ここでは、モラヴィア派のドイツ人ピーター・ベーラーとの出会いを記念して書いた「ああ、千の舌があれば、私の偉大な救い主の賛美を歌えるのに」で締めくくりましょう。

ほとんどの賛美歌集では、チャールズ・ウェスリーの賛美歌が他のどの作家よりも多く掲載され、僅差でアイザック・ワッツが続きます。そしてポーソンが最後に挙げたい賛美歌作者はモンゴメリーです。彼にも、その日の聖餐式で敬虔な賛美歌として歌える作品があります。

第二に、日曜学校です。 誰が日曜学校を始めたのかと尋ねれば、グロスターのロバート・レイクスと答える人が多いでしょう。しかし、それは正確ではありません。日曜学校を始めたのは、ハイ・ウィコムのハンナ・ボール、ストーキン教会の墓地に眠るメソジストの女性です。ハンナ・ボールはジョン・ウェスリーとの文通を経て、ハイ・ウィコムの使われなくなった家具工場で日曜学校を始めました。そして、ロバート・レイクスに「あなたも同じことをしてみませんか」と提案したのも彼女でした。それでもグロスターには「日曜学校の創設者」と記されたレイクスの銅像があります。彼は一人の女性のアイデアを受け継いだのです。

第三に、社会正義です。 人々が回心すると、社会も正されます。貧しい人々への救済、無料の薬を配る薬局、孤児院、学校が始まりました。刑務所改革、特にジョン・ハワードの働きも、18世紀のリバイバルに直接さかのぼります。そして何よりの例が、ウィリアム・ウィルバーフォースと奴隷制度に対する闘いです。ジョン・ウェスリーが最後に書いた手紙はウィルバーフォース宛てで、闘いを続けるよう励ますものでした。キングストン・アポン・ハルへ行くなら、ウィリアム・ウィルバーフォース博物館を訪ねてください。これもリバイバルから生まれたものです。

第四に、優れた文学の驚異的な普及です。宗教トラクト協会は直接的な結果でした。英国および外国聖書協会もそうでした。偉大な聖書教師トーマス・スコットの注解も同様です。

そして最後に、宣教協会です。それ以前にも伝道活動の試みはいくつかありましたが、本格的に動き始めたのは18世紀の終わりになってからでした。正確には1792年バプテスト宣教協会が結成されました。それを動かしたのは、ノーサンプトン近郊の靴屋で、革の端切れから世界の地球儀を作り、特にインドのために祈った人物です。彼は改宗してノーサンプトンシャーのバプテスト教会で説教するよう勧められ、1792年、ケタリングで他の人々と会い、13ポンド2シリング6ペンスという当時としてはかなりの額を集めてバプテスト宣教協会を設立しました。翌年には彼らはインドへ向かい、その大きな宣教活動が始まりました。3年後の1795年には、聖公会、会衆派、長老派が集まり、ロンドン宣教師協会(LMS)を設立しました。LMSはモリソンを中国へ、リヴィングストンをアフリカへ、そして多くの著名な宣教師を送り出しました。1796年にはメソジスト派が一般メソジスト宣教協会を、1799年には英国国教会が教会宣教協会を設立しました。この時期には英国および外国聖書協会も始まりました。これは18世紀の福音主義復活の直接の結果でした。熱い福音には成果がないと誰が言ったでしょうか。人々が主に熱心になるから世界が変わらないと誰が言ったでしょうか。

「福音説教に結果がないと言うのは誰か」

リバイバルの五つの実際的な成果

1

賛美歌

ワッツ、ドッドリッジ、クーパー、ニュートン、そしてチャールズ・ウェスレーの約9000曲の賛美歌

2

日曜学校

ハンナ・ボールはロバート・レイクスより10年以上前に始めていた

3

社会的正義

刑務所改革(ハワード)、奴隷制廃止(ウィルバーフォース)、貧者救済、孤児院

4

文学

宗教小冊子協会、英国・海外聖書協会

5

宣教団体

バプテスト(1792年、ケアリー)、LMS(1795年)、メソジスト(1796年)、CMS(1799年)

『過ぎし世々のわれらの助けなる神』や『驚くべき十字架を仰ぐとき』の作者アイザック・ワッツ。「賛美歌を歌う世紀」の先駆者の一人。
『過ぎし世々のわれらの助けなる神』や『驚くべき十字架を仰ぐとき』の作者アイザック・ワッツ。「賛美歌を歌う世紀」の先駆者の一人。作者不詳、ナショナル・ポートレート・ギャラリー. パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.
『神は不思議な方法で働く』と『血で満たされた泉がある』の作者ウィリアム・クーパー。
『神は不思議な方法で働く』と『血で満たされた泉がある』の作者ウィリアム・クーパー。レミュエル・フランシス・アボット、1792. パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.
元奴隷船船長で牧師となったジョン・ニュートン。『アメイジング・グレイス』と『イエスの名は何と甘い』の作者。
元奴隷船船長で牧師となったジョン・ニュートン。『アメイジング・グレイス』と『イエスの名は何と甘い』の作者。作者不詳、18世紀. パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.
ロバート・レイクス。「日曜学校の創設者」とされるが、メソジストの平信徒ハンナ・ボールが10年以上前から行っていた。
ロバート・レイクス。「日曜学校の創設者」とされるが、メソジストの平信徒ハンナ・ボールが10年以上前から行っていた。ジョージ・ロムニー. パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.
ジョン・ウェスレーが書いた最後の手紙を受け取ったウィリアム・ウィルバーフォース。奴隷制との戦いを「続けよ」と促された。
ジョン・ウェスレーが書いた最後の手紙を受け取ったウィリアム・ウィルバーフォース。奴隷制との戦いを「続けよ」と促された。作者不詳、18〜19世紀. パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.
北ノーサンプトンシャーの靴職人ウィリアム・ケアリー。近代宣教運動の「父」となり、1792年にバプテスト宣教協会を設立した。
北ノーサンプトンシャーの靴職人ウィリアム・ケアリー。近代宣教運動の「父」となり、1792年にバプテスト宣教協会を設立した。作者不詳、19世紀. パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.
ケンブリッジのホーリー・トリニティ教会で54年間牧師を務めたチャールズ・シメオン。『ホラエ・ホミレティカエ』と、英国全土に福音派聖職者を置く網を通して神学的影響を広げた。
ケンブリッジのホーリー・トリニティ教会で54年間牧師を務めたチャールズ・シメオン。『ホラエ・ホミレティカエ』と、英国全土に福音派聖職者を置く網を通して神学的影響を広げた。作者不詳、19世紀. パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.
シメオンの会衆からペルシャへ宣教に出て、そこで亡くなったヘンリー・マーティン。歴史上最も敬愛された宣教師の一人である。
シメオンの会衆からペルシャへ宣教に出て、そこで亡くなったヘンリー・マーティン。歴史上最も敬愛された宣教師の一人である。作者不詳、19世紀初頭. パブリックドメイン、Wikimedia Commons.

締めくくり:「もう一度やってください、主よ」

今夜、私がこの世紀全体から引き出したい教訓は次のとおりです。人が何を信じているかは、その人の行動に影響を与えます。 冷たい知性主義は悪い道徳を生み、熱い福音はその反対の力を生みます。初期のメソジストは、汚れたごみの山の上に咲く清らかなスノードロップの群れにたとえられました。メソジストが飲酒や賭博を避けることを重んじた理由を理解するには、その伝統が18世紀の現実に根ざしていたことを理解しなければなりません。人々を主に近づけるため、彼らはその規律を強く主張し、実際にイングランドを変えていきました。

フランスの歴史家エリー・アレヴィは、フランス革命と「理性」の即位、その後の無政府状態がイギリスへ広がらなかった理由を知りたければ、ジョン・ウェスレーの生涯を研究すべきだと論じました。これは印象的な賛辞ですが、確定した事実ではなく、歴史学上の議論です。人間の冷たい理性が、信じる前にすべてを証明せよと要求して宗教を殺し、宗教を殺すことが道徳を殺すのに対し、神は啓示を指し示す人々を起こしました。彼らは、科学によって証明も反証もできない神の知識、人生と社会に介入して変える生ける神と超自然的な奇跡の福音を説きました。自然も人間の本性も盲目的な法則だけに支配されず、神がその双方を永遠の目的へ導くのです。

それが私が今夜あなたに届けたかったメッセージです。神の偉人たちは再び心を温められ、この地にイエス・キリストの福音をもたらしました。そして、200年以上経った今でも、私たちはその復活の恩恵を受けています。

閉会の祈り。 私たちの父なる神よ、私たちの心の中には一つの祈りがあります。もう一度やってください、主よ。あなたは今でも同じ神です。あなたの腕は今日救えないほど短くなっているわけではありません。私たちは、私たちの社会が衰退し、不安をかき立てるものがあちこちにある中で、18世紀のあの不道徳な文学さえも再びスクリーン上で復活することを祈ります。主よ、もう一度やってください。恐れることなくキリストを宣べ伝える人々を立ち上げてください。この国に再び福音の響きが響き渡り、この国から全世界に向けて良い影響が再び現れるのを私たちが見ることができるよう、主のために燃え上がる伝道者と男女の軍隊を立ち上げてください。神よ、あなたは過去に私たちを大いに祝福してくださいましたが、私たちは過去に生きることはできません。私たちは今を生きなければなりません。私たちの時代と世代においても、私たちもキリスト・イエスによる罪の赦しを発見し、赦しを与える愛を他の人たちに伝えられるように祈ります。アーメン。


三世紀、三つの講義、一つの連続した物語です。教会が国家、ドイツの諸侯、チューリヒ議会、英国議会に取り込まれるたび、その結果は戦争、投獄、または霊的生活の冷え込みでした。そして毎回、それを受け入れない人々がいました。再洗礼派は自発的な洗礼を信じたために溺死させられました。ヘルウィスは「異端者、トルコ人、ユダヤ人」の良心の自由を求める手紙を国王に書いたため、ニューゲート刑務所で亡くなりました。バニヤンは獄中で*『巡礼者の進歩』*を書きました。ウェスリーは、既成の説教壇が閉ざしていた場所に福音を届けるため、馬で25万マイルを旅しました。18世紀の終わりまでに、その三世紀の代償として、聖書が良心の自由と呼ぶものが得られました。ポーソンが繰り返すように、その代償は「永遠の警戒」です。

このシリーズの5パートでは、神が望まれるように、この物語を19世紀に持ち込みます。ウェスリーとホワイトフィールドの後に広がったリバイバルから、20世紀に向けて教会を形作る社会的および神学的大変動を経ていきます。

英語Church History — Part 4: Three Centuries to Win Back Liberty of Conscience (1517–1800)

Note: This piece merges three separate lectures from David Pawson's History of the Church series: the 16th century (54.9 minutes, "Reformers, Romans, and Radicals"), the 17th century (47.7 minutes, England's fight for liberty of worship), and the 18th century (54.9 minutes, the Evangelical Revival). I've folded all three into one essay because they tell a single unbroken story, the cost of state-enforced religion, and the long, hard road back to liberty of conscience. I haven't guessed or embellished any of Pawson's arguments. Wherever I looked something up, checked it against the sources, or corrected a detail, I've left it as an amber margin note woven into the text. The fact-checking this time is heavier than in the first three parts, simply because this stretch of history has more names, dates, and numbers than any other in the series, and it's also the stretch most prone to pulpit legend picking up extra color with each retelling.

From Wittenberg to the Wesleys' parlor

Part 3 closed with Martin Luther standing before the Empire and the Church, declaring "here I stand, I can do no other." But a declaration is not a finished reformation. Pawson opens the next lecture with a question that sounds simple: what is the difference between a Reformation and a Revolution?

The answer lies in two other questions: how much changed, and who changed it. Across the 16th century, Luther's Reformation, as it spread, gradually became a Revolution, because more and more was changed, and more and more different people, in more and more places, took it upon themselves to change it their own way.

The three centuries in this piece tell one continuous story: the Church kept getting "captured" by the state. Kings, parliaments, city councils used worldly power to impose one religion on an entire territory, and the price was always war, prison, or a spiritual life gone cold. These three centuries also tell the story of those who refused to let the state decide their faith, and paid dearly for it.

The Frame For The Whole Lecture

The three R's of the 16th century

Pawson opens by asking: what is the difference between a Reformation and a Revolution? The answer lies in two other questions: how much changed, and who changed it. Luther's Reformation, as it spread, became a Revolution — because more and more was changed, and more and more different people took up the changing.

The Reformers

Luther, Zwingli, Calvin, Knox, Cranmer

Reformed from within, but relied on princes and city councils to impose change on an entire territory — whoever ruled the land decided its religion.

The Romans

Loyola, the Council of Trent, the Inquisition

Did not stand still: the Jesuits, a council that restated doctrine, and a revived Inquisition — three prongs that stopped the Protestant tide after 60 years.

The Radicals

Grebel, Manz, Menno Simons, Hutter

The most radical question of all: who should do the reforming? Answer: not the state. A voluntary church, separate from the state — persecuted by Rome and the Reformers alike.


PHẦN MỘT: THẾ KỶ 16: REFORMERS, ROMANS, RADICALS

Pawson divides the evening into three groups, the "three R's": the Reformers, the Romans (how the Catholic Church reacted), and the Radicals (the group Pawson's own church, Gold Hill, actually descends from). He examines the Reformers in three countries: Germany, Switzerland, then England.

Germany: Martin Luther, and the man who stopped halfway

Who changed Germany? Obviously Martin Luther. How much? Pawson answers: in the first four or five years, a great deal. Luther got rid of the Pope, got rid of bishops, got rid of indulgences, got rid of purgatory, got rid of a host of other things, and reduced the sacraments from seven to two.

Then came the crisis: Luther had to go into hiding at Wartburg Castle. When he came out, he found to his horror that some friends were carrying the change much further and much faster than he'd intended. He stood in his own pulpit and asked: how dare you do this? And from that point, Luther largely stopped changing things. Very few changes came after that.

The result: Luther kept a great deal of what Rome had. He kept candles on the altar, something the Bible certainly doesn't have, but he kept it. He kept crucifixes, go into a Lutheran church and you'll often see one, which may surprise you. He kept images and pictures. And above all, he kept his own traditional practice around the Lord's Supper and baptism: he still believed, in some sense, that the bread and wine actually were the body and blood of Christ, he never quite got over that. And he kept infant baptism. When someone asked, but surely faith is needed for baptism, his reply was: who's to say the baby doesn't have faith?

Kit's note

The unnamed friends at Wartburg have a very specific name: Andreas Karlstadt, Luther's own Wittenberg colleague. In Luther's absence, Karlstadt led a program of iconoclasm, abolished vestments and private confession, and pushed a more radically spiritualized view of the Supper. Luther's return produced eight straight days of preaching, the "Invocavit Sermons" (named for the first Sunday in Lent, March 1522), reasserting a slower, gentler pace of reform. Karlstadt was eventually pushed out of Wittenberg and drifted toward positions close to the Swiss Reformed and even proto-Anabaptist views before dying in Basel in 1541, making him an interesting hinge figure between Pawson's later "Reformers" and "Radicals" categories.

Who carried the change out? Here's a rather startling answer: Luther relied on the princes. In other words, this was a state-driven change. Lutheranism, like Roman Catholicism, was an established religion. From the very beginning, Luther relied on princes, dukes, and the Elector of Saxony, particularly a man called Frederick, to reform "from the top." Whoever ruled the land, Luther regarded as also ruling the church.

The result: at a Diet in Speyer, it was decided that each territory would adopt the religion of its prince. If you lived where the prince was Catholic, you were Catholic. If the prince was Lutheran, you were Lutheran. A group objected violently to this, and it's from that "protest" that the word Protestant was born.

Kit's note

The word "Protestant" actually traces to two Diets of Speyer, not one. The first Diet of Speyer (1526) granted temporary toleration, letting each territory choose its own religion (the principle later Latinized as cuius regio, eius religio). The second Diet of Speyer (1529) reversed that toleration; in response, the Elector of Saxony, the Margrave of Brandenburg, several other princes, and fourteen imperial free cities filed a formal protestatio on 25 April 1529, this document, not a vague "group," is the direct root of "Protestant."

The result of this church-state fusion: by the start of the 17th century, the Catholic states banded together and went to war with the Protestant states, who had also banded together, the famous Thirty Years' War. That's the kind of end product this mistake produces: when the state here says everyone must be this religion, and the state there says everyone must be that religion, sooner or later you get religious war. And the pattern spread from Germany to Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, all adopting Lutheranism as a state religion, binding on every citizen.

Ghi chú của Kit

Số bí tích giảm từ bảy xuống hai là đúng với Luther, nhưng con số bảy không phải là một "phát minh" của riêng Rome mà Luther đang thoát ra. Đó là sự đồng thuận chung của toàn bộ Hội Thánh trước Cải Chánh, cả Đông lẫn Tây (báp-têm, thêm sức, Tiệc Thánh, xưng tội, hôn phối, truyền chức, xức dầu bệnh nhân). Bước chuyển sang chỉ còn hai bí tích của Luther là một sự đoạn tuyệt với toàn bộ Hội Thánh cổ, không chỉ với "Rome."

The debate over the Lord's Supper wasn't only a Western argument. Between roughly 1573 and 1581, Lutheran theologians at Tübingen sent the Greek-translated Augsburg Confession to Patriarch Jeremias II of Constantinople, hoping to find common ground. He replied with three careful theological letters, agreeing on some points but rejecting Luther's core positions on grace, the sacraments, and the Fathers' authority to interpret Scripture, then closed the correspondence with: "Go your own way, and do not send us further letters on doctrine, but only letters written for friendship's sake." The Reformation genuinely reached the East, and was declined, on Orthodoxy's own terms.

Portrait of Martin Luther, who put the Word of God back into the hands of ordinary people in German and affirmed: “The just shall live by faith.”
Portrait of Martin Luther, who put the Word of God back into the hands of ordinary people in German and affirmed: “The just shall live by faith.”Lucas Cranach the Elder, 1529. Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.
Wartburg Castle, where Luther hid after the Diet of Worms and translated the New Testament into German in roughly eleven weeks, before returning to Wittenberg to put the brakes on changes that had run ahead of him.
Wartburg Castle, where Luther hid after the Diet of Worms and translated the New Testament into German in roughly eleven weeks, before returning to Wittenberg to put the brakes on changes that had run ahead of him.Modern photograph, Wartburg, Eisenach. Public domain / CC, Wikimedia Commons.

Switzerland: Zwingli, who died on the battlefield, and Calvin, who stayed one night and ended up staying twenty years

Luther neither started the Reformation in Switzerland nor helped it, it began entirely on its own. There were two men: a German Swiss, and a Frenchman.

Huldreich Zwingli was an ordinary parish priest of the Catholic Church in a small village in German-speaking Switzerland. He became a Protestant by reading his Greek New Testament, exactly what happened to Martin Luther, in fact a few years before it happened to Luther. Zwingli was invited to be priest at Zurich Cathedral (the Grossmünster). He preached the new truths he'd found in this book, and swept the city of Zurich along with him.

Among the things he taught: it was wrong for the Pope to have an army, staffed with Swiss mercenary troops. (Interestingly, if you visit the Vatican today, you'll still see Swiss Guards protecting it, the very practice Zwingli spoke against.) He gave up his allegiance to the Pope and got married, two things that often seem to go together. Many other priests followed him.

He eventually persuaded the city council, and notice this, that everyone in Zurich must now be Protestant. Once again, the same sad mistake. But it was carried through. Zurich became officially Protestant, as did all the valleys leading out from it. The trouble was that people in the mountains and forests didn't follow. Soon the valley people and the mountain people were fighting each other. A war lasting two years broke out in the Zurich region, and during it, Zwingli himself, who was fighting, was killed at a small place called Kappel.

Kit's note

"A war lasting two years" needs unpacking: there were actually two separate, short Kappel Wars, not one continuous conflict. The First War of Kappel (June 1529) ended almost bloodlessly with a negotiated armistice (sometimes nicknamed the "Kappel Milk Soup" war, the two armies reportedly shared a communal soup at the front line before real fighting began). The Second War of Kappel came two years later, on 11 October 1531: a single battle, over in under an hour, where roughly 2,000 Zurich troops were routed by 7,000–8,000 Catholic-canton troops. Zwingli, serving as army chaplain, died among the roughly 500 Zurich dead. A gruesome detail Pawson leaves out: Zwingli's body was afterward quartered and burned as a heretic's by the victorious Catholic side, a reminder this was fought as personally as it was politically.

Before he died, Zwingli had a major dispute with Luther over the Lord's Supper. Luther said: that bread is the body, that wine is the blood of Christ. Zwingli said: that's just bread, just wine, symbols of his body and blood. And Pawson observes: perhaps that's why the Germans and the Swiss never came together in the Reformation.

The story moves to France. A young man called John Calvin, born in Picardy, the son of a lawyer, was put to the study of law by his father. He studied at the universities of Paris, Orléans, and Bourges, where Calvin got his logical mind. He remained a lawyer to his dying day in his speech, his clarity of thought, and his devastating arguments, it's Calvin's arguments that persuaded so many people to become "Calvinists."

Calvin came to Paris, studied the Greek New Testament, and was converted (around 1532–34). Within months he was imprisoned in Paris for his Christian views. Released, he fled as a refugee, wandering from place to place.

He found himself in the Swiss city of Basel at the age of 26, and decided to write down his Christian beliefs. That book was The Institutes of the Christian Religion, still acclaimed as one of the greatest expositions of the Protestant faith in the world, still sold and read today.

Kit's note

The image of a "26-year-old writing 600 pages in one sitting" conflates two different books. The actual 1536 edition Calvin wrote at 26 was a slim, six-chapter catechetical work, roughly 200–250 pages, loosely modeled on Luther's Large Catechism, nothing like 600 pages. The massive, multi-volume Institutes still read and taught today is the 1559 Latin edition, four books, 79 chapters, the product of five successive revisions across more than two decades, finished when Calvin was nearly 50. The real story is less "a 26-year-old writes a masterwork in one sitting" and more a promising young scholar's first primer, patiently rewritten across a working lifetime.

He advocated church on Sunday morning and playing bowls on Sunday afternoon, he did it himself, and we owe (or blame) Calvin for the "Continental Sunday." But something far deeper mattered more: this man believed God was on the throne. He believed in the sovereignty of God, that God's will is the final factor deciding the history of nations and of men. And it's because of that tremendous logical emphasis on divine sovereignty and the doctrine of predestination that Calvin gave his name to people who think that way: Calvinists. But Calvin believed it, and so did Luther, and so did Zwingli, and so did all the Reformers: that God is on the throne, in absolute control of everything and everyone.

Calvin was still fleeing from place to place as a refugee. One day, trying to get back into France, he found a minor war going on right on his route, so he took a detour and failed to reach his destination by evening. He settled for the night where he found himself, and that place was called Geneva. Because he'd taken that detour and meant to stay one night only, he stayed 20 years, and Geneva became the center of Presbyterianism for the whole world.

Word got around that Calvin, the young author of those books, was in Geneva, and the local parish priest, a man called William Farel, hurried to the inn and said: Calvin, I want you to stay here. He said: a year ago the council decided Geneva should be Protestant. But it hasn't worked out, they're getting as drunk as ever, gambling as much as ever, nothing has changed, the people aren't changing. We need a man like you. Stay. And Calvin agreed.

Kit's note

Farel's appeal was far more forceful than Pawson's gentle dialogue suggests. Tradition (and Calvin's own later words) holds that Farel effectively pronounced a curse on Calvin's planned quiet scholarly life if he refused to help, something like "may God curse your repose... if you refuse to help us in this work of the Lord", which is why Calvin says he was "stricken with terror" into staying. Also: Geneva's council had voted for the Reformation only in May 1536, just months before Calvin's arrival (not "a year ago"), meaning the city's Protestant experiment was even newer and shakier than Pawson's telling implies.

Calvin was fairly strict. He wasn't having any funny business. He would haul a man before the church and hand him to the magistrates for this, that, or the other. But he pulled the city around until it became well-behaved, though "city" here meant a population of just 13,000. With strict discipline, he cleaned the place up, so much so that three years later he had to flee for his life, to Strasbourg. But after he left, the city collapsed; things went from bad to worse. A deputation came asking him back. And back came Calvin, for 20 more years.

He carried the reformation much further this time. No crucifixes. No candles. And, dare he say it, no organs either; people should sing. He carried the changes further than Martin Luther ever did, and instituted what's now known as the Presbyterian system of church government, in which the church is governed by bodies of laymen, pastors, and elders together, with local bodies meeting in representative assemblies overseeing wider areas.

Geneva became a place Protestants fled to for refuge, altogether 6,000 more came to live there, escaping persecution. And naturally, they picked up Calvin's ideas. When it was safe to return home, they carried Calvin's faith and Calvin's way of running a church with them.

Kit's note

The "6,000 more" figure is on the low side. Documented totals run to roughly 8,000 granted residence in Geneva between 1549–1587, with about 3,000 settling permanently; the city's population roughly doubled at the height of the influx, reaching about 25,000 around 1560.

But, worth adding, Calvin made the same mistake in reverse: fusing church and state. Only this time he didn't say the state must govern the church. He said the church must govern the state. If a church member misbehaved, Calvin expected the city's magistrates to deal with him. Once again, church and state were confused. It didn't lead to war in Geneva, though it did elsewhere.

Kit's note

That last line, "though it did elsewhere", is exactly where the sharpest correction belongs. Calvin's real, well-documented failure on religious coercion isn't a war at all, it's the 1553 burning of Michael Servetus in Geneva, for anti-Trinitarian heresy. Calvin acted as a prosecution witness and, to his partial credit, unsuccessfully petitioned for the more merciful method of beheading rather than burning. Roland Bainton's Hunted Heretic (1953) is the standard account. This matters more because Pawson, later in the "Radicals" section, misattributes a different execution to Calvin, Felix Manz's drowning, which happened when Calvin was 17, still a student in France, not yet converted, and had never set foot in Zurich. The two errors compound: Pawson has Calvin drowning an Anabaptist nine years before Calvin ever left France, while omitting the one execution he was actually responsible for.

From Geneva, the influence reached France.

Huldrych Zwingli (1484–1531), the Swiss reformer of Zurich, who held the Lord's Supper to be a symbolic memorial, and who split with Luther at Marburg.
Huldrych Zwingli (1484–1531), the Swiss reformer of Zurich, who held the Lord's Supper to be a symbolic memorial, and who split with Luther at Marburg.Hans Asper, 1531. Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.
The Grossmünster in Zurich, where Zwingli preached and “swept the city with him” — until it was the city council, not a popular vote, that decided Zurich would go Protestant.
The Grossmünster in Zurich, where Zwingli preached and “swept the city with him” — until it was the city council, not a popular vote, that decided Zurich would go Protestant.Modern photograph, the Grossmünster, Zurich. Public domain / CC, Wikimedia Commons.
John Calvin (1509–1564), the French reformer who systematized Protestant theology in his “Institutes of the Christian Religion” and made Geneva the center of the Reformed branch.
John Calvin (1509–1564), the French reformer who systematized Protestant theology in his “Institutes of the Christian Religion” and made Geneva the center of the Reformed branch.Anonymous 16th-century portrait (Bibliothèque de Genève). Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.
Title page of the 1559 Latin “Institutes of the Christian Religion” — not the 600-page book Calvin wrote in one sitting at 26, but the mature edition after five successive revisions across more than two decades.
Title page of the 1559 Latin “Institutes of the Christian Religion” — not the 600-page book Calvin wrote in one sitting at 26, but the mature edition after five successive revisions across more than two decades.Latin edition, Geneva, 1559. Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.

France: the Huguenots, and Scotland: John Knox

The Protestants of France leaned closer to Calvin than to Luther, and became known as the Huguenots. By the end of the French king's reign during which Calvin began his work, there were already some 20,000 Huguenots in France. They grew and grew, until the terrible St. Bartholomew's Day, 24 August 1572. If you know your history, you know that on that day roughly 22,000 French Huguenots were slaughtered, 2,000 in Paris alone. Person after person was put to death across the whole of France. The Huguenots fled, to England, to the Netherlands. If you meet a family with a French-sounding surname, there's a good chance their ancestors came over with that Huguenot flight. Perhaps tonight, in this church, there are families descended from those who fled the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre.

Kit's note

The death toll should be read as an estimate, not a fixed number. The commonly cited modern range is 5,000–30,000 nationwide; partisan contemporary sources varied even more, from 2,000 (a Catholic apologist) to 70,000 (the Huguenot Sully, inflated). Pawson's national figure (22,000) sits within the plausible range but isn't a consensus number; his Paris figure (2,000) is at the low end, modern research using burial records and bodies recovered from the Seine more often cites roughly 3,000 dead in Paris in the first five days alone. Modern historiography also reads the massacre less as a premeditated royal plan than as a sanctioned assassination of Huguenot leadership that spiraled out of control into mob violence, driven by Catherine de' Medici's dynastic fear, not, whatever Pope Gregory XIII's later, controversial celebration of the news implied, a papal order.

But the country most heavily influenced by Geneva was Bonny Old Scotland. I can't go into the whole history of Scotland, much to the disappointment of the Scots, but let me mention four great Scotsmen.

Patrick Hamilton was the Scot who started the Reformation there, but was burned in 1528. His work was taken up by George Wishart, who had been to Switzerland, but he too came to a sticky end. But the man who really finished the job was John Knox.

He's a colorful character: a student at Glasgow University, then chaplain of St. Andrew's Castle for the Scottish army; the French took the castle and sold Knox as a galley slave, there he was, rowing as a slave. The English rescued him; he came to England, then got into trouble with Queen Mary, fled to the Continent, to Geneva and Calvin. Knox was ripe for these ideas, and he came back to Scotland determined: I'm going to make Scotland Presbyterian. He once prayed: "Lord, give me Scotland, or I die."

Kit's note

"Lord, give me Scotland, or I die" is a ubiquitous line in popular retellings of Knox but has no traceable primary source, no letter, sermon transcript, or contemporary eyewitness account carries it verbatim. Treat it as received oral tradition capturing Knox's well-documented zeal, not a sourced quotation.

In 1560, the Scottish Parliament voted for Protestantism. That same year, they held their first General Assembly. But in 1561, the beautiful and wily Mary, Queen of Scots, returned, and with her beauty and guile she won over most of the Protestant nobility. And so Mary Queen of Scots and John Knox stood face to face. It's a most dramatic story, and if you have any feel for history, you should read it. Nevertheless, after a civil war, Mary Queen of Scots was captured, abdicated in favor of her infant son James, and was ultimately beheaded for treason by Elizabeth I of England. Knox's teaching won the ground, and Scotland has been Presbyterian ever since, the Church of Scotland reflects the Church of Geneva, while the Church of England sits closer to the Lutheran churches. The Church of Scotland owes everything to John Knox.

Kit's note

One date needs fixing: Parliament's vote was 1560, not 1559 as Pawson's opening line has it (his very next sentence, "1560: first General Assembly", is correct and quietly self-corrects). The Scottish Reformation Parliament met in Edinburgh from 1 August 1560, approved the Scots Confession on 17 August, and passed the acts abolishing papal jurisdiction and outlawing the Mass on 24 August 1560. One detail that actually strengthens Pawson's own church-state critique: the 1560 acts were technically illegal at the time, Mary of Guise, the regent, had just died in June 1560, and the actual monarch, Mary Queen of Scots, was in France and never ratified them; the Crown only formally ratified them in 1567. Scotland's Reformation began as much as a parliamentary/noble coup as a grassroots movement.

When Knox died, leadership passed to the last great Scot I want to mention: Andrew Melville, who told King James: "Sire, there are two kings and two kingdoms in Scotland. There is King James, of whom I am a loyal subject; and there is the Lord Jesus Christ, King of the church, of whom James himself is a subject."

Kit's note

Melville's actual wording (via Calderwood's History of the Kirk of Scotland, drawing on James Melville's diary) is sharper and opens differently: "Sir, as I have told you before, I must tell you again: you are God's silly vassal. There are two kings and two kingdoms in Scotland: there is Christ Jesus the King of the church, whose subject King James the Sixth is, and of whose kingdom he is not a king, nor a lord, nor a head, but a member." The line most worth restoring is the one Pawson drops, "God's silly vassal", a sharper rebuke than his paraphrase conveys, and arguably an even better illustration of his own point about the church's independence from royal power.

The St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre, 24 August 1572: thousands of French Huguenots killed within days, one of the bloodiest illustrations of what state-enforced religion cost.
The St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre, 24 August 1572: thousands of French Huguenots killed within days, one of the bloodiest illustrations of what state-enforced religion cost.François Dubois, c. 1572–84. Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.
John Knox (c. 1514–1572), a direct pupil of Calvin at Geneva, who brought the Presbyterian movement to Scotland.
John Knox (c. 1514–1572), a direct pupil of Calvin at Geneva, who brought the Presbyterian movement to Scotland.Engraving by William Holl the Younger, 19th c. (after an earlier likeness). Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.
Mary, Queen of Scots — who returned in 1561, charming Protestant nobles with beauty and guile, and stood face to face against John Knox, before her deposition and eventual execution by Elizabeth I.
Mary, Queen of Scots — who returned in 1561, charming Protestant nobles with beauty and guile, and stood face to face against John Knox, before her deposition and eventual execution by Elizabeth I.Unknown artist, 16th century. Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.

England: a "typical English muddle," Henry VIII to Elizabeth I

Now we come back to our own nation. What happened in England all this time? Pawson says it plainly: the English Reformation was a typical English muddle. It really was a typical compromise, we muddle through and say "that'll do", we don't work by principles, we're terribly pragmatic, we ask does it work, and whatever works is deemed right. This is very English, and the Reformation is quite typical of it.

It started, of course, with Henry VIII and his wanting to marry another woman. But this has been badly misunderstood, let me give the fuller facts. Henry VIII was pressed by others into marrying Catherine of Aragon, and it was an illegal marriage, because she was his brother's widow, so he should never have married her in the first place. But under pressure from various quarters, including the Pope, who granted him special permission to marry illegally, he was pushed into the marriage for political reasons. Every child she bore died, except one, the little girl Mary, who later became the infamous "Bloody Mary." He had no son to carry on the Tudor line, and he knew that when he died, civil war would follow without a male heir. Most people in England at the time took it as a sign of God's judgment on the marriage.

Kit's note

The marriage wasn't really "forced" by contemporaries in the sense implied, it was arranged by Henry's own father, Henry VII, to preserve the Spanish alliance and Catherine's dowry, after his brother Arthur's death in 1502. Because canon law barred marrying a deceased brother's widow, Pope Julius II issued a dispensation in 1503–04, an ordinary (if politically convenient) canonical dispensation, not "special permission to marry illegally." The real ambiguity: Julius II's dispensation hedged on whether Arthur and Catherine's first marriage had been consummated, and that hedge became the crux of Henry's annulment case two decades later.

Then he met Anne Boleyn, a woman he genuinely loved, who might well have made a good queen and a legal wife. (I'm not justifying Henry VIII, I'm giving you the full facts.) He applied to the Pope for an annulment of the first, illegal marriage, but by then politics had shifted, and for political reasons the Pope said no. So Henry VIII said: fine, from now on I don't obey the Pope. Step by step, Henry separated the Church of England from the Pope, as England is separated from the Continent by the English Channel.

Kit's note

It was Pope Clement VII, not Julius II, who refused the annulment, and Catholic historian Eamon Duffy reads that refusal as political capitulation, not principled canon law: Clement was "in the power of Catherine's nephew Charles V, whose armies sacked Rome in 1527... afraid to grant Henry's request." Duffy is sharper still on Henry's supposedly tender conscience over , a conveniently timed scruple that erased Mary's own existence as evidence God hadn't cursed the marriage after all.

The most ironic part of the whole story: as a young man, Henry VIII was something of an amateur theologian, he wrote a book against Martin Luther, and the Pope was so pleased he gave him the title "Defender of the Faith", a title our own queen still carries today, stamped on the coins in your pocket. He earned it for attacking Martin Luther. Did you ever know that? What a muddle the English Reformation is.

Kit's note

The irony runs deeper than Pawson tells it, and telling it in full makes his own "typical English muddle" point better than his version does. Pope Leo X did grant Henry the title on 11 October 1521 for his Assertio Septem Sacramentorum against Luther. But when Henry broke with Rome, Pope Paul III revoked it. It was then restored to Henry and his successors, not by the Pope, but by Act of Parliament in 1543, on an entirely different, Crown-derived legal basis. So the title on Elizabeth II's coins today isn't an unbroken line from Leo X, it needed a mid-Reformation legal reboot via Parliament.

Henry married Anne Boleyn mainly because he'd put a friend of his into the Archbishopric of Canterbury, a man called Thomas Cranmer. Cranmer said: I will annul your first marriage, because I'm convinced it was illegal from the start, so I annul it, you may marry Anne Boleyn, and he secretly conducted the wedding. Henry, now head of the church and broken from Rome, was also short of money, so he seized England's wealthy monasteries and sold their lands to individuals, creating, for the first time, England's middle class, with effects on social life ever since.

But the main point is this: Henry VIII never wanted England to go Protestant. He wanted everything to carry on as before, minus the monasteries, whose loyalty to the Pope ran too strong, but with himself as Pope instead. That's basically and simply what he wanted. But he reckoned without several factors.

He reckoned without the fact that this book was being feverishly translated into English by a man called William Tyndale, hounded around England, forced to flee to the Continent, and finally burned at the stake. But Tyndale gave us the English Bible on which every other English revision has been based, and that Bible, during Henry's reign, was placed, one copy, in every church in England, and for the first time people could go and read it. Henry reckoned without that. Do you notice? Every time, it's this book that sets people free. Every time, it's the chance to read it that produces the most extraordinary things.

Henry also reckoned without men like Thomas Cromwell, the minister behind the dissolution of the monasteries, not to be confused with Oliver Cromwell of the next century, sympathetic in his heart to Protestant ideas, as Cranmer was; without the widespread resentment that the Pope still drew money out of England, "Peter's pence" and other "annates," the tributes still paid. But Henry feared the pace of change, and, sadly, executed Catholics and Reformers alike toward the end of his reign, leaving England in a ferment when he died, but leaving the throne to a boy of ten, a very serious little Christian even then, deeply influenced by Cranmer, and sympathetic to England continuing to change.

Kit's note

Pawson calls him "Thomas Cranwell" and pointedly adds "not to be confused with Oliver", he means Thomas Cromwell (c. 1485–1540), Henry VIII's chief minister and the real architect of the monastic dissolution (1536–1541) and the seizure of Church property, entirely distinct from Oliver Cromwell, the 17th-century Parliamentary leader who appears later in this series. Same surname, over a century apart, with no confirmed direct blood relation.

The Typical English Muddle

The Tudor pendulum: four monarchs, four reversals

Henry VIII

1509–1547

Breaks with Rome, keeps old doctrine

Edward VI

1547–1553

Protestantizes: Book of Common Prayer

Mary I

1553–1558

Back to Rome, ~300 martyrs

Elizabeth I

1558–1603

The “halfway house” — Elizabethan Settlement

Henry VIII — as a young man he wrote against Luther and was named “Defender of the Faith” by the Pope; two decades later, that same Henry broke with Rome, though he never really wanted England to go Protestant.
Henry VIII — as a young man he wrote against Luther and was named “Defender of the Faith” by the Pope; two decades later, that same Henry broke with Rome, though he never really wanted England to go Protestant.Workshop of Hans Holbein the Younger, c. 1537. Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.
Catherine of Aragon, widow of Henry's own brother, whose marriage to Henry VIII — legitimized by a papal dispensation — became the fuse for England's entire break with Rome.
Catherine of Aragon, widow of Henry's own brother, whose marriage to Henry VIII — legitimized by a papal dispensation — became the fuse for England's entire break with Rome.Unknown artist, c. 1520. Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.
Anne Boleyn, the woman Henry genuinely loved — their marriage, presided over by Cranmer, was the final step that pushed England out from under papal authority.
Anne Boleyn, the woman Henry genuinely loved — their marriage, presided over by Cranmer, was the final step that pushed England out from under papal authority.16th-century copy of a lost original. Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.
William Tyndale, who translated the New Testament into English and was burned at the stake in 1536 — yet his own translation, placed in every parish church under Henry VIII, set the English people free in ways Henry never intended.
William Tyndale, who translated the New Testament into English and was burned at the stake in 1536 — yet his own translation, placed in every parish church under Henry VIII, set the English people free in ways Henry never intended.Unknown artist, 16th century. Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.

Edward VI. During this boy king's brief reign, several things happened: clergy were allowed to marry; the Lord's Supper in the Church of England took on a Protestant character, and the altar was called a table; and, more importantly, services were put into English for the first time instead of Latin, and a book was prepared called the Book of Common Prayer, a book for everybody to use, not just a priest who knows Latin up front, but a book so the common people could pray. After its second revision it became the Book of Common Prayer which, largely unchanged, is still the one used in a Church of England service today. We owe that to that boy king, or rather, to his reign.

One rule brought in under this boy king: every priest had to preach at least four times a year. Can you imagine the state of the church, needing a rule to make people preach four times a year? That's a small window into the state of the Church of England at the time. Under Cranmer, they also began drafting Articles of Religion, up to 42, later cut down to 39. During Edward VI's reign, Protestant refugees also returned to England, and to Cambridge, my old university, came a famous professor of theology from Strasbourg, by the name of Martin Busser, teaching Cambridge students the Protestant understanding of the gospel of Christ.

Kit's note

The name is Martin Bucer (1491–1551), Pawson's spoken pronunciation ("Busser") reflects the German, but the standard English spelling is Bucer. He held the Regius Professorship of Divinity at Cambridge from 1549 until his death there in 1551, a genuinely significant continental Reformer (close to both Luther and Calvin) whose brief Cambridge tenure shaped a generation of English Reformers.

Then the boy king died, and the throne passed to his half-sister, daughter of a Spanish mother, Mary. Mary, half Spanish by blood and wholly Spanish in outlook, married Philip of Spain and was determined to bring England back to Rome. 1,200 married clergy were put out of a job. The pendulum swung right back, and during Mary's reign nearly 300 great Christians were put to death, earning her that dreadful nickname: Bloody Mary. She deserved it.

In Oxford, on the main street outside Balliol College, there's a memorial to two men, Latimer and Ridley, burned at the stake during Mary's reign for their Protestant faith. And you'll remember Latimer's words to Ridley: "Be of good comfort, Master Ridley, and play the man; we shall this day light such a candle, by God's grace, in England, as I trust shall never be put out."

Kit's note

Latimer's famous line is close but not exact, and there's a real asterisk over its authenticity. The standard wording from Foxe is: "Be of good comfort, Master Ridley, and play the man; we shall this day light such a candle, by God's grace, in England, as I trust shall never be put out." Pawson's "torch" is his own paraphrase of "candle." More importantly, this line appears only in the 1583 edition of Foxe's Book of Martyrs, not the earlier 1563 edition, raising real doubt about whether it was said verbatim at the stake, or added/embellished two decades later for literary effect. Treat it as beloved and quotable, not iron-clad verbatim history.

During Mary's reign, Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury, under great pressure signed a document recanting the changes he'd made. But you can't change that easily, and in his heart he knew he'd been wrong, and he too soon found himself headed for the stake. When the time came to be tied to it, he publicly declared his utter remorse over recanting his Protestant stand, and thrust the arm that had signed the paper into the flame, watching it burn to a cinder. He said: that hand, which signed such a paper, must be burned first. That was Cranmer, and 300 others. Hooper was burned at Gloucester; many others burned at the stake, the fires of Smithfield, you've heard of them. Four bishops and one archbishop, and many other leading preachers, were put to death during Mary's reign.

Kit's note

The nearly-300 figure and the senior clergy named check out: standard tallies (following Foxe, cross-checked by modern historians) put the number burned at 284, with roughly 30 more dying in prison, totaling near 300–314. Cardinal Reginald Pole, the papal legate, who had earlier had his own mother executed by Henry VIII, formally absolved both Houses of Parliament and brought England back under Rome in a special evening session on 30 November 1554, still called "Reconciliation Day" in older Catholic martyrologies. A striking coincidence: Pole died on the same day as Mary I, 17 November 1558.

You can imagine the sigh of relief when Elizabeth I came to the throne. In the Pope's eyes, and many others', she was an illegitimate child; the Pope held Mary Queen of Scots to be the rightful heir, and there lies the root of the treason charge between Mary Queen of Scots and Elizabeth. But the persecution ended, and refugees came flooding back to England.

It's in Elizabeth I's reign that the typical English muddle we call the Church of England really took shape. Elizabeth liked ornate services, liked vestments, liked ritual, so she was unhappy about letting those things go. She said Edward's second Prayer Book was too Protestant, and had it revised, pulling it back toward Rome. She even stopped the practice of clergy meeting to study the Bible together, something that had been doing a power of good in this land. Yet she couldn't turn the clock back as Mary had tried to, and the Elizabethan Settlement, as it's called, settled for a kind of halfway house. And if you want to know why the Church of England today can hold both evangelicals and Anglo-Catholics, you have to go back to Elizabeth I, because leaving things in a halfway position, imposed by Parliament, threw the door wide open to exactly that kind of mixture.

The Book of Common Prayer remains largely Protestant, not entirely, but largely. And the 39 Articles finally drawn up under Elizabeth's reign are a wonderful statement of Protestant faith. Any clergyman who preaches the 39 Articles is a clergyman preaching the gospel. Sadly, not everyone does, but it's there, in the book, and there's enough Protestantism in it to build a thoroughly evangelical Church of England, but also the possibility of the other, which came later.

Edward VI came to the throne at 10, “a very serious little Christian” — under his brief reign the Book of Common Prayer was born, largely unchanged in Anglican worship to this day.
Edward VI came to the throne at 10, “a very serious little Christian” — under his brief reign the Book of Common Prayer was born, largely unchanged in Anglican worship to this day.Workshop of William Scrots, c. 1546. Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.
Mary I — “Bloody Mary” — determined to bring England back under Rome; nearly 300 Christians were burned during her reign, among them Cranmer, Latimer, and Ridley.
Mary I — “Bloody Mary” — determined to bring England back under Rome; nearly 300 Christians were burned during her reign, among them Cranmer, Latimer, and Ridley.Antonis Mor, 1554. Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.
The Martyrs' Memorial in Oxford, commemorating Latimer, Ridley, and Cranmer — where Latimer is said to have spoken: “Be of good comfort, Ridley, and play the man; we shall this day light such a candle in England as, by God's grace, shall never be put out.”
The Martyrs' Memorial in Oxford, commemorating Latimer, Ridley, and Cranmer — where Latimer is said to have spoken: “Be of good comfort, Ridley, and play the man; we shall this day light such a candle in England as, by God's grace, shall never be put out.”Modern photograph, Oxford. Public domain / CC, Wikimedia Commons.
Elizabeth I in the “Armada Portrait,” her hand resting on the globe — England having just survived a Spanish invasion and settled into a religious “halfway house” that still shapes Anglicanism today.
Elizabeth I in the “Armada Portrait,” her hand resting on the globe — England having just survived a Spanish invasion and settled into a religious “halfway house” that still shapes Anglicanism today.Workshop of George Gower, c. 1588. Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.

Elizabeth died unpopular, though her popularity rebounded when Philip II of Spain, incensed at the execution of Mary Queen of Scots, vowed to invade England by force and bring it back to the Pope. He sent a fleet, the Spanish Armada, 160 ships, 30,000 marine troops, with an army massed on the other side of the Channel ready to cross the moment the invasion began. England was in desperate straits, no allies, and the massed might of Europe seemingly bearing down the Channel.

But England had Sir Francis Drake, and the stories about him you probably know better than I do, how the Armada was routed by superior English seamanship, and how it seemed as if even God fought for England that day, as the winds proved too strong for Spain's unwieldy galleons, wrecking them along the English and Scottish coasts, where wreck-hunters are still searching for them to this day.

Kit's note

Ship and troop counts are inflated. Modern estimates: roughly 124–141 ships (commonly cited around 130) left Lisbon in May 1588, not 160. The troop figures are also conflated: the fleet itself carried roughly 8,000 sailors and 18,000–19,000 soldiers (about 26,000–27,000 total aboard), not 30,000 "marine troops." The figure closer to 30,000 actually belonged to the separate land army the Duke of Parma had massed in Flanders, waiting to cross once the fleet cleared the way, likely the true source of Pawson's "30,000," misapplied to the fleet itself.

Pawson adds a personal detail: a wrecked Spanish galleon off northern Scotland, sailors coming ashore and being called "Saint Clare", marrying local girls and founding the Sinclair clan. His own mother was a Sinclair, so, by his account, he carries Spanish blood from the Armada. (This is purely a family anecdote, not a verified historical event, but a charming detail showing that even Pawson found his own small thread woven into this much larger story.)

Summing up the Reformers: in none of the three places, Germany, Switzerland, England, was the Reformation carried through to a full conclusion, for the same reason: church and state stood too close together. Either the state ran the church, or the church ran the state, and the result was always a religion imposed on an entire region, eventually leading to war. Pawson asks: is there anything more tragic than people fighting wars over religion, in the name of Christ, in the name of Christianity, killing one another?

The Spanish Armada, 1588 — roughly 130 ships, not the 160 often repeated, defeated by the English navy and then wrecked by storms along the English and Scottish coasts.
The Spanish Armada, 1588 — roughly 130 ships, not the 160 often repeated, defeated by the English navy and then wrecked by storms along the English and Scottish coasts.English school, late 16th century. Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.

The Romans: three prongs of the Counter-Reformation

So what were the Romans doing all this time? By 1580, 60 years after Luther, Protestantism had spread through much of Germany, to Denmark, Norway, Sweden, a good deal of Switzerland, a fair bit of France, to England, and by 1580, Ireland and Germany remained Catholic. The odd thing is that all this happened in 60 years, and then for the next 300 years the boundaries stayed almost exactly the same, and largely still are. Why did Protestantism spread so quickly in 60 years, then come to a halt?

The answer: when you study what the Romans were doing, you find a movement called the Counter-Reformation. There had been an attack on Rome that had robbed her of half of Europe, and Rome wasn't going to sit down under that. Three things happened that stemmed the flood.

First: Ignatius Loyola and the Jesuits. Loyola was a Spanish nobleman badly wounded in war, lying with a shattered leg in hospital for months. During that time he had visions and a change of heart religiously, he became a devout Catholic, believing his life's calling was to stop the spread of Protestantism. He believed doing so meant fighting in a very different way than other armies, you might almost call his followers "the Salvation Army of Rome." He went to Paris, gathered around him six noblemen and some noble ladies, and started the Society of Jesus, popularly known as the Jesuits. Loyola's goal was to keep Europe for Rome and stop the Protestant flood, and frankly, he largely achieved it.

He gathered hundreds of people and subjected them to the most rigorous military-style discipline imaginable, set down in a book called the Spiritual Exercises, 25 days of fasting, seeking visions, and much else. By the end you're ready to be a follower of Ignatius Loyola. What's more, they were prepared to use fair means and foul, provided you kept someone for Rome, you could use whatever means you thought necessary, which is why the English word "Jesuitry" carries a negative sense. One of them, Francis Xavier, converted 700,000 people to Rome in India, the East Indies, and Japan.

Kit's note

A few details need precision. Loyola was wounded on 20 May 1521 defending Pamplona against the French, a cannonball broke one leg and shattered the other. His convalescence was mainly at the family castle, not primarily "in hospital," and involved multiple painful surgeries to reset the bone. Denied his usual chivalric romances during recovery, he read a Life of Christ and the lives of the saints instead, that reading, not the visions alone, triggered his conversion. The founding six weren't uniformly noble: on 15 August 1534 he and six companions took vows at Montmartre, Paris, Francis Xavier, Alfonso Salmerón, Diego Laínez, Nicolás Bobadilla, Peter Faber, and Simão Rodrigues, and Peter Faber was a peasant's son from Savoy, not a nobleman. The Society was formally approved by Pope Paul III in 1540. The "Spiritual Exercises" is traditionally a 30-day retreat, not 25. And Francis Xavier's "700,000 converts" is a legendary figure; modern scholarship places his own personal baptisms at roughly 30,000, mostly among the Paravar fishing communities of South India, with only a few hundred to under a thousand documented baptisms in Japan over his roughly two years there. The 700,000 figure likely reflects a much later, looser tally of the broader Jesuit missionary movement Xavier inspired over subsequent decades, retrojected onto Xavier's own ministry.

Second: the Council of Trent. The Pope, recognizing much needed discussion, called a council, the Council of Trent, meeting 25 times between 1545 and 1563. At first the Pope considered inviting the Protestants to sit down and see if the differences could be resolved, but his cardinals persuaded him not to invite them, and they never came. Had they come, history might have been different. But they weren't invited.

Trent declared: Tradition stands alongside Scripture. The Apocrypha must be part of the Bible. Purgatory exists. Indulgences, the invocation of saints, images, and relics are a right and pious practice. And the Pope has absolute authority. This was the first time the Church of Rome had said these things this formally. And, I say frankly but lovingly: not one of those things has changed to this day. And indeed it can't, if you believe councils cannot err, how could these things now be denied? The recent Vatican Council cleaned up and adjusted much, explored much, but not a single thing I've just read out has changed at all. Even when Rome says it will accept the Revised Standard Version of the Bible, it comes with the proviso: provided the Apocrypha is included.

Kit's note

This is where the deepest research yields the most corrections in the whole piece. "Not invited" has it backwards, Protestants really were invited, twice, under a formal safe-conduct. During the council's second period (13th session, 1551–52), Protestants were issued an imperial safe-conduct with a right to be heard (though not to vote). Philip Melanchthon actually set out for Trent in 1552 to represent the Lutherans, getting as far as Nuremberg before Duke Maurice of Saxony's military revolt against Charles V forced the council to suspend and ended the attempt. The truer story: Rome did attempt outreach, but on terms (no voting rights, prior decrees treated as settled) that made real participation structurally difficult, and then the 1552 war overtook the effort entirely.

On "the Pope's absolute authority": this was not defined at Trent, this conflates two councils three centuries apart. Trent reinforced papal authority procedurally (requiring bishops' obedience, papal confirmation of decrees) but did not formally define papal supremacy or infallibility as dogma. That doctrine, papal primacy of jurisdiction and infallibility when speaking ex cathedra, was first formally defined at the First Vatican Council (1869–70), in the constitution Pastor Aeternus, over 300 years after Trent closed. This meaningfully corrects Pawson's "nothing has changed" claim as applied specifically to papal authority, the very doctrine he describes didn't yet fully exist at the point he says it was declared.

Even on indulgences, "nothing has changed" overstates the case: the underlying dogma that indulgences exist hasn't been reversed, but Paul VI's 1967 apostolic constitution Indulgentiarum Doctrina (issued in response to Vatican II) substantially revised the practical theology and application of indulgences, abolishing the old quantified system of "days and years" and re-centering indulgences on charity and contrition. So "unchanged" holds at the level of dogma, not at the level of lived practice.

On the "Apocrypha": what Protestants call this, Catholics call the deuterocanonical books (Tobit, Judith, Wisdom, Sirach, Baruch, 1–2 Maccabees, plus additions to Esther and Daniel). Trent's Fourth Session (8 April 1546) was the first time the Church made the full canon a formal article of faith under anathema, and notably, it passed 24–15 with 16 abstentions, not unanimously. From Rome's side this reaffirmed a canon already attested at the councils of Rome (382), Hippo (393), and Carthage (397), used throughout the medieval Vulgate, not adding new material from nothing. Worth noting: Jerome himself, translating the Vulgate a millennium earlier, had flagged some of these books as of lesser canonical status even while including them, so both sides can claim ancient precedent, a genuinely interesting complication rather than a simple "Rome added books" story.

Third: the Inquisition was revived. Torture, imprisonment, and death were used as instruments against Protestants. They wiped out almost every Protestant in Spain, most Protestants in Italy, and elsewhere like Austria. The result is that to this day, Christians as we understand them remain a tiny minority in those lands.

Kit's note

This is the point where deeper research yields a genuine reversal of Pawson's implicit thesis. The scale and mechanism he suggests, a vast, uniquely brutal killing machine, is largely the "Black Legend" that modern professional historiography, led by Henry Kamen's The Spanish Inquisition: A Historical Revision (Yale University Press), has significantly revised downward using the Inquisition's own surviving case records. Kamen's research finds Spain's heresy executions in this period (roughly 100, 1559–66) were fewer than under Mary Tudor in England in the same decade (about half the number), roughly a third the number executed in France, and roughly a tenth the number executed in the Low Countries over the same years. Per Kamen, the Inquisition's "sinister reputation" owes much to Protestant and Dutch/anti-Habsburg propaganda rather than a uniquely Catholic-Spanish scale of violence. None of this excuses the persecution that did happen, but it reframes 16th-century religious violence as fairly evenly distributed across confessions, Protestant England under Mary, Calvinist Geneva with Servetus, Huguenot France's own retaliatory violence, brutal suppression in both directions in the Low Countries, rather than a uniquely Roman pathology. On this evidence, the violence tracks the fusion of church and state generally, on every side, not any one confession's particular cruelty.

Why The Tide Stopped After 60 Years

The Counter-Reformation's three prongs

By 1580 — 60 years after Luther — Protestantism had spread across much of Germany, Scandinavia, Switzerland, France, and England. Then the line held almost still for the next 300 years. Three things stopped the flood.

The Jesuits

Ignatius of Loyola, 1540

A “Salvation Army of Rome”: severe discipline, a 30-day Spiritual Exercises retreat, willing to use fair means and foul — origin of the negative sense of “Jesuitry.” Francis Xavier reached as far as India and Japan.

The Council of Trent

1545–1563, 25 kỳ họp

Reaffirmed: Scripture AND Tradition, the Apocrypha, Purgatory, and the propriety of indulgences and veneration of images/relics. Protestants were in fact invited (under safe-conduct, 1551–52), but Maurice of Saxony's war cut the attempt short.

The Inquisition

Revived

Torture, imprisonment, and execution used to wipe out nearly all Protestants in Spain and most in Italy. But modern research (Henry Kamen) finds Spain's actual toll lower than the number Mary I executed in England in the very same years.

Ignatius of Loyola (c. 1491–1556), founder of the Jesuits (Society of Jesus, 1540), spearhead of the Catholic renewal through education and missions.
Ignatius of Loyola (c. 1491–1556), founder of the Jesuits (Society of Jesus, 1540), spearhead of the Catholic renewal through education and missions.Jacopino del Conte, c. 1556 (painted the day Ignatius died). Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.
Francis Xavier, the Jesuit missionary to India, the East Indies, and Japan — the “700,000 converts” figure is a later legend; modern scholarship puts his own personal baptisms at roughly 30,000.
Francis Xavier, the Jesuit missionary to India, the East Indies, and Japan — the “700,000 converts” figure is a later legend; modern scholarship puts his own personal baptisms at roughly 30,000.Unknown artist, 17th century. Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.
The Council of Trent (1545–1563), the definitive Catholic doctrinal response to the Reformation: reaffirming Scripture AND Tradition, justification by grace and cooperation, the seven sacraments, and transubstantiation.
The Council of Trent (1545–1563), the definitive Catholic doctrinal response to the Reformation: reaffirming Scripture AND Tradition, justification by grace and cooperation, the seven sacraments, and transubstantiation.Elia Naurizio, 1633 (Museo del Buonconsiglio, Trento). Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.

The Radicals: one sword only, against both

Now the third group, the one I can be briefest about, yet the one I consider most important. They're called the Radicals because they were the extreme left wing of the Reformation. A recent book I've read calls them "the stepchildren of the Reformation." Who were they, and what did they believe? They were the ones who began asking the most fundamental question of all: who should be doing the reforming? Who should be doing the changing? And they reached a momentous conclusion neither Roman nor Reformer had reached yet: the answer, they said, is that it should have nothing to do with the state at all. That church and state are two entirely different bodies and shouldn't stand too close together. These Radicals believed in a free church, not an established one. They weren't even happy with established Protestantism. They said: you can't make people good through government. You can't impose a religion. It must be freely and voluntarily accepted by people themselves. You can't say everyone in England will be Protestant. You can't say everyone in Spain must be Roman. You can only use one sword: the sword of the Spirit, the Word of God. So they were pacifists. They refused to fight in the wars between Protestants and Catholics. They said: we will not fight for the gospel; we shall only use the sword of the Spirit, the Word of God.

This was revolutionary. And they were regarded as dangerous revolutionaries, destroying the very thing that held society together, the idea that church and state belonged to each other. So where did they start? They arose in 1522 in the city of Zurich, Switzerland. They called themselves, significantly, "brethren," and the leaders were two men, Conrad Grebel and Felix Manz. Fine Christians, in the very city where Zwingli was getting the city council to impose Protestantism on everybody. They said: that's not the right way to do it. The only right way is to preach the Word, and when people voluntarily accept it, form them into a church. And so they were fighting for what we now call religious liberty.

Kit's note

The more accurate founding date is 1525, not 1522. The scholarly consensus date for the birth of Swiss Anabaptism (also the movement's own 500th-anniversary year, observed in 2025) is 21 January 1525, when George Blaurock asked Conrad Grebel to baptize him at a gathering in Zollikon, near Zurich, and Blaurock then baptized the others present, the first "re-baptisms," and the movement's founding act. 1522–23 is defensible as when the dissenting Bible-study circle around Grebel and Manz first coalesced and grew dissatisfied with Zwingli's pace, but believer's baptism itself, the practice that gave Anabaptists their name, only began in January 1525, three years later. This matters because it shows the Swiss Brethren emerged directly out of frustration that Zwingli, having gone to the Bible for his own reforms, still let the Zurich city council set the pace and scope of change, exactly the church-state fusion Pawson elsewhere criticizes Zwingli for. Grebel and Manz's break was a direct, principled reaction against Zwingli's own compromise.

The "recent book" Pawson references is almost certainly Leonard Verduin, The Reformers and Their Stepchildren (Eerdmans, 1964), a Reformed-background but pro-Anabaptist history arguing the Radicals were the disowned spiritual children of Luther, Zwingli, and Calvin. And "the extreme left wing of the Reformation" isn't folk phrasing but a citable scholarly term: coined by Yale historian Roland H. Bainton in "The Left Wing of the Reformation," Journal of Religion 21 (1941), later given fuller treatment in George Huntston Williams's landmark The Radical Reformation (1962), the work that coined "Radical Reformation" itself, still the standard scholarly term today.

And now I must tell you something very sad: it wasn't only the Romans who attacked these people, the Reformers did too. There came a day when Martin Luther told the German princes they must use the sword against these Radicals. And there came a day when John Calvin consented to Felix Manz being drowned as an appropriate end for a Baptist, and he was drowned with Calvin's support. Even Zwingli himself, in Zurich, got the council to pass cruel laws against these people. Isn't it interesting? The Romans used the state, so did the Reformers, and both were willing to use the literal sword in the name of Christ. But the Radicals said: we will use no other sword than this one. And so the sword of the Romans and the sword of the Reformers were both turned against them.

Kit's note

This is the single most important correction in the whole piece, independently flagged by every research angle consulted: Felix Manz was drowned in the Limmat river in Zurich on 5 January 1527, executed under a Zurich city council edict passed 7 March 1526, an action driven by Huldrych Zwingli's influence over that council, not John Calvin's. John Calvin was 17 years old in January 1527, still a law student in Orléans/Bourges, France. His own conversion is usually dated c. 1533–34, six to seven years after Manz's death, and he didn't arrive in Geneva until 1536, nine years after the execution. Calvin had no documented connection whatsoever to Zurich, to the Manz case, or to this execution. Zurich and Geneva were different cities, with different magistrates, and, at the relevant date, entirely different reformers.

The likely source of the confusion: Pawson (or his source material) has conflated Manz's drowning with Calvin's real, well-documented complicity in the 1553 burning of Michael Servetus in Geneva (already noted above). Substituting Servetus for Manz keeps Pawson's larger point fully intact and historically accurate: the magisterial Reformers did use lethal force against dissenters, it's just that Zwingli, not Calvin, presided (via the council he'd cultivated) over Europe's first Protestant-on-Protestant execution of a fellow reformer, for the "crime" of re-baptism, Manz drowned with grim, deliberate irony matching the charge ("the third baptism"). Calvin's own real, parallel stain, arguably worse, since he personally approved it and Geneva's council convicted with virtually no theological ally objecting, is Servetus, thirteen years later.

But the story doesn't stop there, Pawson also mentions "some fanatics and extremists like the Thomas Münzer of Zwickau" among the Radicals, though he says closer study shows most of them don't deserve that reputation.

Kit's note

Thomas Müntzer doesn't actually belong in the Anabaptist category at all, and correcting this matters because it reinforces exactly the point Pawson makes a few lines later. Müntzer never practiced or taught believer's (re-)baptism, the defining Anabaptist distinctive Pawson himself uses throughout this section. Mainstream historians (following George Huntston Williams's standard taxonomy) classify him as a Spiritualist/apocalyptic revolutionary: he emphasized direct inner illumination of the Spirit over Scripture, came under the influence of the separate "Zwickau prophets" during his brief posting there, broke decisively with Luther by 1523, and became a leader of the German Peasants' War, captured and executed (beheaded, not burned) after the Battle of Frankenhausen in May 1525, months after, and unconnected to, the Zurich Anabaptists' founding events that same year.

This matters historiographically: 19th- and 20th-century historiography (Marxist historiography especially, via Engels's The Peasant War in Germany) lumped Müntzer, the Zwickau prophets, and the peaceful Swiss/South German Anabaptists together as one undifferentiated "radical" mass. Modern Anabaptist scholarship (following Harold Bender's landmark 1944 address, "The Anabaptist Vision") works hard to separate the pacifist, biblicist Swiss Brethren (Grebel, Manz, Simons, Hutter) from the violent, revolutionary strand, precisely because conflating them was historically used to justify persecuting the peaceful Anabaptists as if they were all violent revolutionaries. This is exactly the charge Pawson spends real energy refuting a few sentences later ("they were accused of being revolutionaries, but so was Jesus Christ... they only fought with the Word"), his own brief Müntzer aside momentarily reintroduces the very conflation his larger argument works to dismantle. Worth noting too (a real, dramatic episode Pawson never mentions, though it fits "extremists" well): the Münster Rebellion (1534–35), where Anabaptist leaders Jan Matthys and Jan van Leiden seized the city of Münster, instituted forced polygamy and communal property, and armed resistance against a besieging army, ending in a massacre, is the actual episode that made "Anabaptist" a byword for dangerous fanaticism across 16th-century Europe, and is precisely the traumatic backdrop against which Menno Simons's peaceful reorganization of the movement (below) makes the most sense.

Menno Simons, if you've ever come across the Mennonites, you owe those great Christians to Menno Simons. Jacob Hutter, if ever you've come across the Hutterites, you owe those to Jacob Hutter. And to my mind, these were the ultimate reformers. It was they who said: we will change everything that is not according to the Word of God, and we will change it ourselves. We will not wait for princes or popes to change it. We will live by the Word of God and follow it, as individuals and as fellowships, to the fullest degree. And this they did.

Kit's note

Both figures deserve fuller biography, and both connect directly to the Münster material above. Menno Simons was a Frisian Catholic priest who left Rome in 1536 (around age 40) after his brother was killed in an Anabaptist stand that ended in bloodshed. His decisive turn was explicitly toward the peaceful, non-resistant wing of Anabaptism, partly as a deliberate corrective response to the disastrous, violent Münster Rebellion that had just discredited the whole movement; his writings explicitly repudiate Münster's violence. Jacob Hutter, a Tyrolean hat-maker turned Anabaptist leader, organized the communal-property branch of Anabaptism (modeled on Acts 2 and 4) among refugees in Moravia between 1533–1535, before being captured, tortured, and burned at the stake in Innsbruck in 1536, the same year Menno left the priesthood. Both threads, peaceful, individual-property Mennonites and peaceful, communal-property Hutterites, survive as living church bodies today, giving real, tangible weight to Pawson's closing claim of direct historical descent from these movements.

We are here today because of those Anabaptists. We are free from an established church because their influence and ideas rose up in England in Elizabeth I's time, in a group called the Independents, who said: we want a free church. Because they couldn't find it in England, they set off for America on the Mayflower, to settle there, for all time, the principle of religious liberty, the individual's freedom to follow whatever faith they feel is right. This is our heritage. And this is what they fought and died for.

Kit's note

This tidy line of descent is compressed, and the real story is richer, with a missing central figure. Historians are genuinely divided on how much direct Anabaptist influence shaped English Separatism versus indigenous Puritan nonconformity. The genuinely documented, direct Anabaptist-to-Baptist contact point differs from what Pawson describes: it's the Separatist congregation of John Smyth and Thomas Helwys, who fled to Amsterdam in 1608, adopted believer's baptism in 1609 in direct contact with the Dutch Mennonites there, and in 1612 Helwys led the return to England to found the first Baptist congregation on English soil, at Spitalfields, a full generation after Elizabeth's death (1603), not during her reign as Pawson's framing implies.

The Mayflower Pilgrims were Separatist Congregationalists, not Baptists, and Plymouth Colony did not establish general religious liberty, it remained a covenanted, religiously exclusive community. The colony that actually pioneered legal religious liberty in America was Roger Williams's Providence/Rhode Island (founded 1636), after Williams, banished from Massachusetts Bay for advocating separation of church and state and freedom of conscience for "Jews, Turks, and infidels" alike, briefly became a Baptist in 1639, founding the first Baptist church in America. Roger Williams is the single most significant missing name in this entire section of Pawson's lecture. His 1644 tract The Bloudy Tenent of Persecution is treated by historians as a direct forerunner of Jefferson's "wall of separation" language, the straighter, better-documented line from Radical Reformation principles to American religious liberty runs through Williams, not directly through the Mayflower Pilgrims. Given that the entire point of this section is to draw a line from the Radicals to American religious liberty, this is a significant and easily fillable gap.

They had some fanatics and extremists like the Thomas Münzer of Zwickau. But by and large, when you study their story, a story only now being properly written, the research only now coming off the press, you find: only now have people begun to see the true place of the Anabaptists. They fought and died for religious liberty, but they only fought with this, they were accused of being revolutionaries, but so was Jesus Christ. And Jesus said: "My kingdom is not of this world; if it were, my servants would fight." And that is precisely what the Anabaptists said.

Next Sunday, God willing, I'll take the story into the 17th century, the age when religious liberty came to England, the age when people began to be allowed to follow their own convictions in this land. The age of William Penn. The age of John Bunyan. And the age of many another great servant of God.

One Sword Against Two

The Radicals: no state protected them, both sides attacked

Grebel and Manz in Zurich (1525) said: the church should use no sword but “the sword of the Spirit” — the Word. Only believers should be baptized. Both Rome and the Reformers regarded this as a mortally dangerous principle.

Rome's sword

The Inquisition, criminal law against heresy

The Reformers' sword

Zwingli: Felix Manz drowned in Zurich, 1527 · Calvin: complicit in burning Servetus, 1553

In the middle: the Anabaptists, using “only one sword” — the Word — and refusing to take up any other, even while under attack from both sides.

Menno Simons (1496–1561), a former Catholic priest who gave the shattered Anabaptist movement a peaceful, nonviolent identity; his name lives on in the Mennonites.
Menno Simons (1496–1561), a former Catholic priest who gave the shattered Anabaptist movement a peaceful, nonviolent identity; his name lives on in the Mennonites.Engraving by Jacob Burghart, 1683 (posthumous). Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.

PHẦN HAI: THẾ KỶ 17, CUỘC CHIẾN GIÀNH TỰ DO THỜ PHƯỢNG

Pawson's next lecture opens with him reading from a Bible printed in 1607, the old English long-s spelling, a translation heavily indebted to William Tyndale's earlier work, reading in full, because that letter was written from prison, and the 17th century would produce other great writings from prison too, most famously John Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress.

Kit's note

A Bible dated 1607 in an English pulpit was almost certainly a Geneva Bible, the dominant household and pulpit Bible in England well after 1611 (Shakespeare and the Pilgrims themselves used it), not a unique curiosity. Worth noting: the Geneva Bible's own marginal notes, some justifying resistance to tyrannical kings, were themselves one reason James I wanted a new, note-free translation.

He defines the century plainly: 1600 to 1700. And the difference between the two ends is the whole point of the lecture: in 1600, this congregation would not have been allowed to meet tonight to worship as they are. By 1700, they would. He sets out to show how liberty of worship came to this land, so that for the last 200–300 years people have been able to meet like this, worshipping as they feel they ought, with no one hindering them, dragging them to prison, or executing them for it. And it's in this century that the battle was fought, and finally won.

England, 1600, and the adventure of the King James Bible

The State Of Play In 1600

Three groups of Christians in England

In 1600, this church would not have been allowed to meet as it does tonight. By 1700, it would be. This is the story of how liberty of worship came to England.

Anglicans

Accepted Elizabeth's “halfway house” — a mixture of old Roman practice and Reformation change.

Puritans

Still inside the Church of England, but wanted vestments, crucifixes, and candles gone — plain, Word-centered worship. Represented by Richard Baxter.

Independents

Standing entirely outside the Church of England — also called Separatists or Congregationalists. Slogan: “Reformation without tarrying for any.”

At the century's start there were three groups of professing Christians in England. Officially there were no more Roman Catholics, banned by law; if any remained, they were secret sympathizers. Within the Church of England were two groups: Anglicans, who accepted the compromise Queen Elizabeth had worked out, and Puritans, represented by Richard Baxter, who wanted a much purer Church of England, no vestments, no crucifixes, no candles, plain worship, and above all the Word of God at the center rather than ceremony. Baxter, pastor of the parish of Kidderminster, is a good case in point: besides two or three hours of Sunday teaching, he went house to house, giving each family in his parish its own Bible study, that's the secret of his effect on Kidderminster.

Outside the Church of England was a third group: the Independents, also called Separatists, or "Brownists" (after a man named Brown), or Congregationalists, because they believed each congregation should order its own affairs under the Lord. Their slogan: "Reformation without tarrying for any." Meaning: we're not waiting for Parliament or the Church to change, we're pressing ahead and living by the Bible in our own local congregation right now. The poet John Milton is a good case in point for this Congregationalist strand at the start of the century. Many of them paid for it with their lives, Greenwood and Barrow among them.

Kit's note

"No more Roman Catholics" overstates the erasure. Catholicism survived as a large persecuted minority under escalating penal law (1559 Act of Uniformity fines; the 1570 papal bull Regnans in Excelsis excommunicating Elizabeth; the 1585 Act making seminary priesthood itself treason). Tens of thousands of recusants, plus many more unregistered "church papists" outwardly conforming, existed in 1603, not just "a handful of secret sympathizers." Also worth noting: the Counter-Reformation's missionary counter-offensive, the English College at Douai (founded 1568) trained seminary priests sent back into England after Trent. Edmund Campion, a Jesuit, landed in 1580 and was executed at Tyburn in 1581 for treason (not heresy, English law made "reconciling" subjects to Rome a capital political crime); he was canonized in 1970. And the 1605 Gunpowder Plot, entirely missing from Pawson's account, is arguably the hinge event for Catholics under James I, hardening penal law for the rest of the century.

James VI of Scotland became James I of England. From the start he secretly held to the divine right of kings to rule religion, and the divine right of bishops to rule the church, but he kept that quiet while still only King of Scotland. When he came south, the English expected him to favor the Puritan line. They were quickly shocked. He declared: "presbyteries agree as well with monarchy as God and the devil." His watchword: "no bishop, no king."

In 1604 he called a conference of leading Christians to Hampton Court Palace. There James ridiculed and insulted the Puritans without mercy. You're killjoys, he said, don't like sports on Sundays? I'll make it lawful to have sports and entertainment on Sundays, goading them like that. But there was a Puritan there, a famous Oxford professor named Reynolds, a courteous, saintly gentleman, and all the ridicule and laughter didn't disturb him one bit. He stood his ground. And when James had run out of invective, Dr. Reynolds said: your majesty, I have a suggestion, it's time we had a new English Bible. The suggestion was taken up, almost to James's own surprise, and from the Hampton Court Conference, seven years of hard work followed, producing what we call the King James Version, so named not because he started or carried it out, but because he happened to be king when it was finished and presented to him. We call it the "Authorized Version" because he authorized it. The Bible you've used all your life, used in this country for 350 years, was the result of a Puritan at Hampton Court, born in the year 1611.

That year was momentous for England, something else happened too: the first Baptist church in England was founded in 1611, the same year as the Authorized Version. Sadly, after that conference, James issued a proclamation demanding every clergyman fully conform to the bishops. 1,500 vicars refused to sign, and 300 of them were thrown into jail immediately. It was the first rift in the English church, and from it, vestments and rites and ceremonies, absent since the start of the Reformation, came back, and have stayed ever since.

Kit's note

James's two quoted lines, "presbyteries agree as well with monarchy as God and the devil" and "no bishop, no king", are attested in William Barlow's contemporary published account, The Summe and Substance of the Conference (1604). But Barlow was an episcopal partisan, not a neutral reporter, treat these as period paraphrase captured by a hostile witness rather than a verbatim transcript. Reynolds's actual proposal was narrower and more technical than "let's have a new Bible", he wanted "one only translation... to be authentical and read in church," prompted by inconsistencies among existing English Bibles. About 47 scholars, in six companies, worked from 1604 to 1611.

"1,500 vicars refused, 300 jailed" is the clearest correction needed in this whole section, flagged independently by every research angle. The documented figure for clergy actually deprived under Archbishop Bancroft's 1604 Canons is roughly 80–100 ministers, not 1,500 refusals or 300 immediate imprisonments. Pawson (or his source material) appears to be retrojecting the much larger, better-documented 1662 Great Ejection figures (see below) onto 1604.

James I: “no bishop, no king” — the king who summoned the 1604 Hampton Court Conference, where a Puritan minister proposed the translation that became the Authorized (King James) Version.
James I: “no bishop, no king” — the king who summoned the 1604 Hampton Court Conference, where a Puritan minister proposed the translation that became the Authorized (King James) Version.Workshop of John de Critz, c. 1605. Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.
Hampton Court Palace, where James I ridiculed the Puritans in 1604 — until an Oxford professor named Reynolds proposed a new translation of the Bible.
Hampton Court Palace, where James I ridiculed the Puritans in 1604 — until an Oxford professor named Reynolds proposed a new translation of the Bible.English school, 17th century. Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.
Title page of the Authorized (King James) Version, printed 1611 — the unexpected fruit of a conference the king called mainly to slap down Puritan demands.
Title page of the Authorized (King James) Version, printed 1611 — the unexpected fruit of a conference the king called mainly to slap down Puritan demands.Robert Barker printing, London, 1611. Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.
Richard Baxter, the Puritan pastor of Kidderminster — who catechized nearly every family in his parish personally, roughly an hour a week each.
Richard Baxter, the Puritan pastor of Kidderminster — who catechized nearly every family in his parish personally, roughly an hour a week each.Robert White, 17th century. Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.

The Puritan clergy fled to Ireland, where the archbishop at the time was a man called Ussher, a great one for working out dates. If you've ever seen an Authorized Version with "4004 BC" printed at the head of , something God never wrote into the Bible, you're looking at what Archbishop Ussher put there, having calculated that Adam was born about 9 a.m. on 21 October that year. One English scholar remarked rather dryly that, being a careful scholar, Ussher wouldn't commit himself more precisely than that.

Kit's note

Ussher's actual published calculation (Annales Veteris Testamenti, 1650) dates the first day of Creation to nightfall preceding 23 October, 4004 BC (proleptic Julian calendar), not 21 October, and Ussher never specified an hour. The famous "9am" detail actually belongs to a different contemporary scholar, John Lightfoot, Vice-Chancellor of Cambridge, who independently calculated Creation at 3929 BC (a different year entirely) and did specify 9am for the creation of man. The two figures were popularly fused into a single "Ussher-Lightfoot chronology", a conflation traceable partly to Andrew Dickson White's 1896 polemic. Pawson's own caveat ("God never wrote this in the Bible") is correct and worth crediting. Ussher was a serious, respected Hebrew and patristic scholar working with the best available method of his era, not a crank; his chronology was mainstream scholarship across confessional lines, staying in Bible margins into the 19th century.

While Ussher was pinning down Adam's birth hour, the entire Orthodox world was operating on a wholly different, much older chronology: the Byzantine "Creation Era," based on the Greek Septuagint rather than the Hebrew Masoretic text, dating Creation to 1 September 5508/5509 BC, over 1,500 years earlier than Ussher. Russia used this dating civilly until Peter the Great's calendar reform in 1700 (the very last year of this century), and Orthodox churches still use it liturgically for Paschal calculations today.

Others who couldn't worship according to conscience fled east, to Holland. There was a group of Independents at a small village called Scrooby, under the faithful pastor John Robinson, meeting as their own congregation. But the local squire brought magistrates to threaten them, and they decided the only way out was to find a boat and cross to Holland. It's a dramatic story: a Dutch boat arranged to meet them near Boston, split into two crossings, one boat with the men, one with the women and children, to avoid detection. The boat with the women and children ran aground in the mud. The men reached the Dutch ship, but then saw English troops appear on shore, firing on the ship, forcing it to pull away, leaving their wives and children behind on the mudflat. Fortunately, a year or two later, the women and children made it out to Holland to reunite with them.

Kit's note

This merges two separate episodes, autumn 1607 and spring 1608. The first attempt (autumn 1607, at Boston itself) was betrayed by the hired shipmaster before anyone boarded; the whole group, men, women, children together, was searched, robbed, and briefly jailed in the Boston Guildhall. The second attempt (spring 1608, near Immingham on the Humber estuary, a different location, not Boston) is where the dramatic scene actually happened: the men boarded a Dutch ship first, armed horsemen appeared on shore, and the captain fled with the men aboard before the women and children (delayed by a grounded barge) could board. The women and children were arrested and shuttled among reluctant magistrates, following in small groups over the following months, not "a year or two later." The primary source is William Bradford's own eyewitness account in Of Plymouth Plantation. The guiding figures at this stage were as much William Brewster and Richard Clyfton as Robinson. Robinson only became pastor once they'd settled at Leiden, and he himself never sailed on the Mayflower. He stayed as pastor of the Leiden congregation and died there in 1625, always intending to follow. "Pilgrim Fathers" is itself an anachronistic label, popularized in the 18th–19th centuries, not a name the Separatists used of themselves.

But something was happening in Amsterdam: a group of Christians began studying the question of baptism. Until then, all the Reformers practiced infant baptism as it had been practiced for centuries. But in Amsterdam, a group under a man called Helwis began to look at this, reaching the conclusion that baptism should be for believers only. Having no one qualified to baptize them, two of them agreed: I'll baptize you if you baptize me. Then, unable to find work, they risked returning to London, and in 1611, at Spitalfields, London, the first Baptist church in England was founded.

Kit's note

This mixes up both the person and the date. It was John Smyth, Helwys's own pastor, who performed "se-baptism" (pouring water on his own head, then baptizing roughly 40 others including Helwys), not a mutual pair baptizing each other. Smyth then had second thoughts about his own self-baptism's validity and sought union with the Dutch Waterlander Mennonites; Helwys rejected this and broke away, leading the group back to England. Smyth stayed in Amsterdam and died there in 1612, never returning. On the date: Helwys and about a dozen others founded the church at White's Alley, Spitalfields, in 1612, not 1611. That earlier year is the date of an earlier confession of faith Helwys drafted while still in Amsterdam, a likely source of the conflation.

One strong, currently missing piece of the story, genuinely important to the whole lecture's "religious liberty" thesis: in 1612, Helwys personally sent King James a copy of his tract A Short Declaration of the Mystery of Iniquity, widely regarded as the first English-language argument for full, unqualified religious liberty extending even to non-Christians, with a handwritten inscription. He was imprisoned in Newgate for it and died there around 1616. This predates Roger Williams's more famous religious-liberty writings in New England by over two decades, and is arguably the true theological headwater of the "free church in a free state" principle Pawson credits broadly to the Pilgrims and Baptists at the close of the lecture.

The king is a mortal man, and not God, therefore hath no power over the mortal soul of his subjects, to make laws and ordinances for them, and to set spiritual Lords over them... Men's religion to God is between God and themselves; the king shall not answer for it... Let them be heretics, Turks, Jews, or whatsoever, it appertains not to the earthly power to punish them in the least measure. Thomas Helwys, "A Short Declaration of the Mystery of Iniquity" (1612)
Archbishop James Ussher, the serious scholar who calculated the start of Creation — not “9am on October 21” as often retold, but the night before October 23, 4004 BC, with no hour specified.
Archbishop James Ussher, the serious scholar who calculated the start of Creation — not “9am on October 21” as often retold, but the night before October 23, 4004 BC, with no hour specified.Peter Lely, 17th century. Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.
Separatists embarking, first for Holland, later for the New World — the real escape took two failed attempts (1607, 1608) before it succeeded, not a single dramatic scene.
Separatists embarking, first for Holland, later for the New World — the real escape took two failed attempts (1607, 1608) before it succeeded, not a single dramatic scene.Robert Walter Weir, c. 1857 (U.S. Capitol). Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.

The Mayflower, and Charles I: eleven years without a Parliament

Another group of Independents still in the Low Countries realized staying in Europe was simply impractical, unwelcome, no jobs, going hungry. They decided to do something tremendous: come back to England, get hold of a ship, and go to the New World, trying to build in America a free world where people could worship without the state dictating how. They came back and persuaded the owner of the Mayflower to take them, and were called the Pilgrim Fathers. They left Plymouth in 1620, landing at Plymouth in the New World that December. But what a hard experience awaited them, in the first winter, 50% died, from lack of food, cold, lack of medical care. Yet they stayed, and even though they had battles with established Anglican settlements there, the Pilgrim Fathers began something that means America today is entirely free of any state-church relationship, where anybody may worship as they feel they ought.

Kit's note

The 44% death toll (45 of 102 passengers) that winter of 1620–21 is accurate, and Pawson's "50%" is a fair rounding, adult women were hit hardest, 13 of 18 dying. But worth noting: only about 40 of the 102 Mayflower passengers were actual Leiden Separatists ("Saints"); the rest were other settlers recruited by the financial backers ("Strangers"), which complicates the tidy "Pilgrim Fathers" narrative. As for the Mayflower Barn timbers at Jordans (the Quaker meeting house near Pawson's own church) being "almost certainly" from the actual ship, that's local legend, not established fact. It traces to biblical scholar J. Rendel Harris's 1920 book, based on oral folklore and a cracked, metal-braced roof beam he linked to a beam reportedly cracked during the Atlantic crossing. No documentary evidence ties the barn's timbers to the actual ship; maritime and timber historians treat the claim as "neither proven nor disproven." Best read as a cherished local legend, not settled history.

So under James, some went to Ireland, some to Holland, but in England you had to conform. He was succeeded by Charles I, who was worse than his father. He too believed in the divine right of kings and bishops, and went much further: throwing Puritans into prison, heavy fines, the pillory, cropped ears, slit noses, all this happened under Charles I. The Archbishop of Canterbury at the time, William Laud, helped Charles I "turn the clock back": the communion table in parish churches was again called the "altar," and people were made to bow to it. Parliament objected, and Charles I simply did without Parliament for eleven years. Can you imagine a king or queen today doing that? I can imagine a Parliament doing without a king or queen for eleven years, but I can't imagine a king saying, no more Parliament.

15,000 Londoners marched on the palace and presented King Charles I with the "Root and Branch Petition", if you've ever heard the phrase "root and branch," this is where it comes from, wanting all "Romish superstition" rooted out. Charles I refused to listen, and within a short time England was at civil war, breaking out in 1642. Parliament fought the king, and it was a religious issue: by and large, the Anglicans fought with the king, the Puritans with Parliament; by and large the north and west were in the king's hands, the south and east in Parliament's, which is why, if you study free churches today, you'll find they still follow that pattern.

One of the greatest fighters for Parliament was John Hampden, there's a statue of him in Aylesbury's market square. Sadly, that leader was killed very early in the war, and Parliament began to lose. They were waiting for a leader, and that leader came in Oliver Cromwell. Cromwell blended them into the New Model Army, under the famous catchphrase: "Trust in God and keep your powder dry." He put new morale into the troops fighting for religious liberty in this land.

Kit's note

The Root and Branch Petition was presented to the Long Parliament on 11 December 1640, signed by roughly 15,000 Londoners, delivered by a crowd of about 1,500, not a direct confrontation with the king at his palace, as Pawson's telling suggests. And John Hampden, not "Hampton," Pawson's small slip, was killed at the Battle of Chalgrove Field, June 1643 (dying of his wounds a few days later), "very early in the war" is fair. Cromwell's most famous quoted line, "Trust in God and keep your powder dry", is almost certainly apocryphal. Its first known appearance in print is an 1834 poem, "Oliver's Advice" by William Blacker, retroactively putting the line in Cromwell's mouth. No 17th-century source records it, despite Cromwell's extensive surviving correspondence and speeches. A textbook case of how a great man's "immortal" one-liner can be born long after he's dead.

During this civil war, at Westminster, a group of clergymen and scholars from Oxford and Cambridge met to try to work out a pattern of church life everyone could accept, the Westminster Assembly of Divines, with a few Scots invited to attend, whose influence, as Scots often do, ran deep. They produced a statement of faith called the Westminster Confession, and to this day it remains the confession not only of the Scots but of most Presbyterians worldwide. You could probably quote one line from it: what is the chief end of man? The chief end of man is to glorify God, and enjoy him forever. Have you heard those words? That was decided at Westminster, during the civil war. But it wasn't generally accepted, the Scots accepted it, the English never did.

Kit's note

The Assembly sat at Westminster Abbey from 1643–1653 (main work substantially done by 1649), summoned by the Long Parliament, not the king, itself a marker of the Civil War's constitutional stakes: Parliament unilaterally remaking church government. Roughly six Scottish commissioners (including Alexander Henderson and Samuel Rutherford) attended as advisors under the Solemn League and Covenant (1643), which bound England to move toward Presbyterian church government in exchange for Scottish military help against the king, explaining Pawson's aside about Scottish influence precisely. The Confession was formally adopted by the Church of Scotland General Assembly in 1647 and remains its subordinate standard. Never adopted by the Church of England (which reverted to the Thirty-Nine Articles at the Restoration), though English Congregationalists (the Savoy Declaration, 1658) and Particular Baptists (the Second London Confession, 1689) both produced doctrinally similar adaptations, tying directly back to the Baptist thread from earlier.

Charles I was still around, but was finally brought to London to be beheaded. He was held for a few weeks, or was it days?, in the manor house at Stoke Poges. If you ever get the chance, go there, go into the manor house, and above the fireplace, painted on the plaster wall, is the royal coat of arms of Charles I. To while away the hours and keep his mind off his execution, he painted his own royal coat of arms on the plaster. They've covered it with glass now, but you can still go into the main room at Stoke Poges and see it, before Charles I was beheaded in Whitehall in 1649.

Kit's note

The core fact, Charles I beheaded outside the Banqueting House, Whitehall, on 30 January 1649, is entirely correct. The Stoke Poges detention/painting anecdote reads more as local legend than verified history, a charming, unconfirmed story, not settled fact.

One Century, Six Reigns

The Stuart monarchs and their religious policy

James I

1603–1625

“No bishop, no king” — pressured the Puritans, yet produced the KJV Bible (1611)

Charles I

1625–1649

With Laud, pushed ceremony further; ruled without Parliament for 11 years; Civil War; executed

Commonwealth

1649–1660

Cromwell; Presbyterians then Independents in control — “new Presbyter was but old priest writ large”

Charles II

1660–1685

Restoration; the Great Ejection of 1662; secretly sympathetic to Catholicism

James II

1685–1688

Openly Catholic, determined to bring England back to Rome; overthrown

William & Mary

1689–

The Toleration Act — an era of stability and tolerance (Catholics excepted) begins

The Mayflower in Plymouth Harbor, 1620 — only about 40 of the 102 passengers were actual Leiden Separatists; the rest were other settlers recruited by the backers.
The Mayflower in Plymouth Harbor, 1620 — only about 40 of the 102 passengers were actual Leiden Separatists; the rest were other settlers recruited by the backers.William Halsall, 1882 (Pilgrim Hall Museum). Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.
The signing of the Mayflower Compact, 1620 — the settlers' first self-governing covenant, made before they ever set foot on land.
The signing of the Mayflower Compact, 1620 — the settlers' first self-governing covenant, made before they ever set foot on land.Jean Leon Gerome Ferris, early 20th century. Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.
Charles I — even more rigid than his father on the divine right of kings and bishops; ruled 11 years without Parliament, then was executed in 1649.
Charles I — even more rigid than his father on the divine right of kings and bishops; ruled 11 years without Parliament, then was executed in 1649.Anthony van Dyck, c. 1636. Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.
William Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury, who helped Charles I “turn the clock back” — renaming the communion table an “altar” and requiring people to bow to it.
William Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury, who helped Charles I “turn the clock back” — renaming the communion table an “altar” and requiring people to bow to it.Workshop of Anthony van Dyck, c. 1638. Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.
Oliver Cromwell, leader of Parliament's New Model Army — the line “trust in God and keep your powder dry,” long attributed to him, actually first appears in an 1834 poem.
Oliver Cromwell, leader of Parliament's New Model Army — the line “trust in God and keep your powder dry,” long attributed to him, actually first appears in an 1834 poem.Samuel Cooper, c. 1656. Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.
Title page of the Westminster Confession of Faith (1647) — “Man's chief end is to glorify God, and to enjoy him for ever” — summoned by the English Parliament, adopted by the Church of Scotland, but never by England.
Title page of the Westminster Confession of Faith (1647) — “Man's chief end is to glorify God, and to enjoy him for ever” — summoned by the English Parliament, adopted by the Church of Scotland, but never by England.London edition, 1647. Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.
The execution of Charles I outside the Banqueting House, Whitehall, 30 January 1649 — a king executed by his own Parliament.
The execution of Charles I outside the Banqueting House, Whitehall, 30 January 1649 — a king executed by his own Parliament.German or Dutch school, 17th century. Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.

Bunyan, "New Presbyter is but Old Priest writ large," and the reign of Charles II

Among the soldiers who fought with Oliver Cromwell was a young man, hard-drinking, hard-fighting, hard-swearing, born at a little village called Elstow, just outside Bedford. His name was John Bunyan. (More about him shortly.)

After the civil war, the Presbyterians got control of the Church of England and tried to make everybody Presbyterian. Isn't it funny, when the Anglicans are in control, everybody must be Anglican; when the Presbyterians get it, everybody must be Presbyterian. Which caused someone to say: "New Presbyter is but Old Priest writ large." In other words, we've just traded one tyranny for another.

Kit's note

That line is the closing line of John Milton's sonnet, "On the New Forcers of Conscience under the Long Parliament" (c. 1646), worth naming, since Milton was already introduced earlier as a case-in-point Congregationalist, tying the quote to him strengthens continuity. Worth noting: Milton wrote it before the Presbyterians had actually reached the full ascendancy Pawson describes, it was a specific polemical jab, from a radical Independent's viewpoint, at Parliament's Presbyterian majority trying to impose a coercive national church with power to excommunicate, not a detached general verdict, though it has become exactly the kind of proverbial one-liner Pawson uses it as. By the 1650s Milton had moved decisively away from both Presbyterian and conventional Independent church order, toward radical individual liberty of conscience, opposing a coercive state church of any stripe, and seems to have worshipped largely outside any organized congregation by the end of his life.

Finally we come to the reign of Charles II, a man about whom one could hardly say things bad enough, for his lack of principle and profligacy. The Scots accepted him first, crowning him at Scone, thinking he'd fight with the Scots and the English Parliament for Presbyterianism, for a purer Puritan Church. The Scots soon regretted their folly. I can't go into the story of the Covenanters, only to say that 17,000 Scottish Covenanters, meeting in secret in the highlands to worship as they felt they ought, suffered under Charles II.

Kit's note

The commonly cited figure (closer to 18,000, per 19th-century martyrologist John Howie's Scots Worthies) is actually a composite across roughly 27 years and multiple categories of suffering, about 1,700 banished to America, 750 to the northern Scottish islands, 3,600 imprisoned or outlawed, 680 killed in battle, 7,000 who fled Scotland, 362 legally executed, 498 killed extrajudicially, not 17,000–18,000 people executed, and not confined to "meeting in secret" alone. Modern historians regard Howie's totals as inflated devotional/commemorative numbers rather than verified statistics. Geography needs correcting too: the worst violence (the "Killing Time," 1679–1688) was concentrated in the southwest Lowlands (Ayrshire, Galloway, Dumfriesshire), not the Highlands, which were largely Episcopalian or Catholic clan territory.

Charles II was secretly sympathetic to the Roman Catholic Church, and his ambition, through intrigue, was to bring England back to it. He made a secret treaty with Louis XIV of France to turn the clock back 200 years, to the pre-Reformation days. How did he do it? From 1661, a series of Acts of Parliament turned the clock back. 1662 was the worst, the Act of Uniformity. Not Roman yet, but Anglican, with Charles II and Parliament saying: everybody must be this. In that very year, 1662, nearly 2,000 clergymen left their livings, out into the unknown, with no home or job or anything else, because they refused to conform to the Act of Uniformity. And into the English language came a new word: "nonconformist", and at first, it was a criminal word. One of those turned out at the time was dear old Richard Baxter.

In 1665, another Act came, because these ejected clergymen kept creeping back secretly to meet their old congregations, Parliament passed an Act that no clergyman was allowed within five miles of his former church, called the Five Mile Act. Here's an interesting detail: if you go to Wendover, you'll see the Baptist Church on the right-hand side of the road, a good five minutes' walk outside the village, and you may have wondered why build a church outside a village. The answer is simple: in 1662, the Vicar of Aylesbury was turned out for refusing to conform, but kept creeping back into Aylesbury, holding meetings in kitchens and gardens. Then the Five Mile Act came out. Do you know what he did? He stood in the middle of Aylesbury and started walking out five miles, pacing it out, and five miles brought him to a field, where he started meeting. People walked five miles from Aylesbury, and they put up a place of worship, which is now the Baptist Church of Wendover, exactly five miles out.

In 1673 came the notorious Test Act, Parliament saying there must be neither Roman Catholics nor nonconformists in England, everybody must worship this way. This caused a great deal of suffering for conscience's sake.

Kit's note

"Nearly 2,000" is the most commonly cited traditional figure, but the true range is genuinely contested among historians: contemporary Nonconformist chronicler Edmund Calamy counted 1,897; his 20th-century editor A. G. Matthews (Calamy Revised, 1934), after removing 47 already-dead entries, 41 duplicates, and 113 unsupported records, arrived at a more conservative verified 936, though other tallies (combining earlier 1660–62 removals) reach 1,760–1,800, about 20% of all beneficed clergy. "Nearly 2,000" is defensible as the traditional figure but sits at the high end of a genuinely contested range.

The 1673 Test Act didn't decree a blanket ban on Roman Catholics and nonconformists being present in England at all. Its actual target was narrower and more specific: it required anyone holding civil or military office under the Crown to take Anglican communion, swear oaths of allegiance, and formally deny transubstantiation, barring Catholics (and, as a side effect, Dissenters unwilling to take Anglican communion) from public office, not from residing in or worshipping in England. Its most famous immediate casualty: James, Duke of York (the future James II), who resigned as Lord High Admiral in 1673 rather than take the sacrament, the first public confirmation of his Catholicism.

One strong thread missing here: downstream of the Test Act sits the 1678–81 Popish Plot, Titus Oates's fabricated conspiracy, which saw more than 15 Catholics executed on perjured testimony, including Archbishop Oliver Plunkett of Armagh (canonized 1975), the darkest, most dramatic Catholic-persecution episode of the century, and worth including for how it sharpens the "everyone was persecuting everyone" texture of the reign. Worth noting too: Charles II's own Catholicism was never publicly acted on in his lifetime, he received Catholic last rites only on his deathbed, February 1685, from Fr. John Huddleston, smuggled in by his brother James, decades of concealment resolved only at the very end.

From Persecution To Toleration

Four acts, nearly thirty years

1662

Act of Uniformity

The Great Ejection — hundreds to nearly 2,000 ministers lost their livings for refusing to conform.

1665

Five Mile Act

Ejected ministers barred within five miles of their former parish.

1673

Test Act

Barred Catholics and Dissenters from civil/military office — not from residing in England.

1689

Toleration Act

Dissenters allowed to worship openly — Catholics excluded, waiting another 89–140 years.

John Bunyan — a onetime “hard-drinking, hard-fighting, hard-swearing” soldier turned Baptist preacher in Bedford, later jailed twelve years for preaching without a license.
John Bunyan — a onetime “hard-drinking, hard-fighting, hard-swearing” soldier turned Baptist preacher in Bedford, later jailed twelve years for preaching without a license.Thomas Sadler, 1684. Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.
Charles II — secretly sympathetic to Catholicism, party to a secret treaty with Louis XIV, and the king under whom nearly 2,000 ministers lost their livings in 1662.
Charles II — secretly sympathetic to Catholicism, party to a secret treaty with Louis XIV, and the king under whom nearly 2,000 ministers lost their livings in 1662.John Michael Wright, c. 1660–65. Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.

John Bunyan, George Fox, and William Penn: prisoners of conscience

It was during this period that John Bunyan, now older, converted, converted through overhearing some housewives gossiping in a backyard, became a preacher at Bedford. (Housewives, if you gossip in a backyard, bear in mind: you might produce another John Bunyan, if you're gossiping about the right things, because this hard-drinking, hard-swearing, hard-fighting young man overheard some housewives talking about Jesus in a backyard, and had never heard anything so sweet, and it convicted him of his sin.) He was converted, became a preacher at Bedford, was baptized as a believer, and preached the gospel wherever he could.

John Bunyan was thrown into prison under Charles II, twelve years, with only one break in between, separated from his blind wife and struggling children. But one day in jail he had a dream: he saw a man with a burden on his back, and a man who wanted to be rid of it. He began writing the dream down, and that dream is Pilgrim's Progress. I hope you've read the whole book, in the adult version, not the children's version, the adult version shows you not just what happened to Pilgrim, but what he thought and what he said. And I hope too that someday you'll read another important book by Bunyan, Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners, describing his conversion and how he became the preacher he was. I suppose Pilgrim's Progress is the best-known Christian book next to the Bible. He never mentioned the church in it. He never mentioned the sacraments in it. And so it was accepted by Christians of every churchmanship, and to this day has one of the widest appeals of any book ever written in the Christian world.

He died in 1688, buried at Bunhill Fields, which I visited recently. By the end of his life, people called him "Bishop Bunyan", though the one thing he never wanted to be was a bishop. But as he traveled around, as people came to him for help, they said: you have as much right to be called a bishop as those who are. So we're going to call you that. Hence, Bishop Bunyan.

Kit's note

The whole frame, arrested 12 November 1660 preaching at Lower Samsell, Bedfordshire; tried at Bedford Quarter Sessions in January 1661; held mainly in Bedford County Gaol until release under Charles II's Declaration of Indulgence, March–May 1672, roughly twelve years, with one roughly six-week release around 1666 before rearrest, matches Pawson's telling exactly. Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners (1666) and the "Bishop Bunyan" nickname (from his post-1672 itinerant pastoral influence across Bedfordshire, Hertfordshire, Cambridgeshire, Surrey, London) are both accurate. The famous dream, a man fleeing the City of Destruction with a burden on his back, the framing device of Pilgrim's Progress, is generally dated by scholars to a brief second, shorter imprisonment (1676–77) under the Conventicle Act, not the long main term of 1660–72 as Pawson's telling implies. Most of the writing likely happened across the long imprisonment, but the dream-vision itself more likely belongs to the later, shorter stay.

Bunyan's story has an almost exact chronological and thematic mirror on the opposite side of the Christian world, entirely absent from Pawson's account. Patriarch Nikon's liturgical reforms (from 1652) split the Russian Church; the Great Moscow Synod of 1666–67 ratified the reforms and anathematized the old rites, birthing the "Old Believer" schism. Its central figure, Archpriest Avvakum, was imprisoned over a decade, during which he wrote The Life of Archpriest Avvakum, by Himself (1672–75), a prison-written spiritual autobiography of conversion and suffering that Slavists routinely compare to Bunyan's Grace Abounding. Avvakum was burned alive with three companions on 14 April 1682, six years before Bunyan's natural death in 1688. Same century, same theme, state-enforced liturgical uniformity, a prison-written spiritual classic, a movement's founding martyr, at opposite ends of Christendom.

Title page of the first edition of “The Pilgrim's Progress” (1678) — the most widely read Christian book after the Bible, born from a dream in prison.
Title page of the first edition of “The Pilgrim's Progress” (1678) — the most widely read Christian book after the Bible, born from a dream in prison.Nathaniel Ponder printing, London, 1678. Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.

A very different kind of character also suffered during this time: a man called George Fox, who had a very deep spiritual experience in the year 1646. There was something very good about that experience, and something not so good. George Fox discovered, or rather, rediscovered, the power of the Holy Spirit to guide into all truth. He called this experience the "inner light," and he said: it's no use just having Scripture outside you, or even in your head, you need the Holy Spirit inside you too. That was something that needed rediscovering, needed saying. You can have Scripture off pat, but without the Holy Spirit it's dead, not alive.

But, sadly, having rediscovered something good, he then went one step further and said something not so good: that the sure word of prophecy we need today is not the Scriptures but the Holy Spirit alone. From that statement comes the greatest weakness of the movement that followed. He gathered around him a group of like-minded people, called the Society of Friends; others nicknamed them Quakers, because they quaked and trembled before God in their meetings. This has been both their strength and their weakness ever since, their strength, that they believe God can speak inwardly through the Holy Spirit; their weakness, that they reject the sacraments the Lord Jesus meant them to have, being outward things, and also tend to disregard Scripture, relying entirely on inner thoughts.

George Fox was imprisoned for saying that, and at one time there were 4,000 Quakers in prison under the reign of Charles II. If you can imagine what proportion that was, you can understand their suffering, especially when you consider that in prison you got no food unless friends brought it to you, and if all the Quakers were in prison, there'd be nobody left to bring them food.

A young aristocrat said: we will never get freedom in England to worship as we ought, we must go to the New World. His name was William Penn, and Penn lies buried not a mile from this spot, with his family, in the quiet little burial ground of Jordans meeting house. Penn went out to the New World, pressed beyond the frontiers of the coastal colonies, and said: we'll have a state of religious liberty, and it became Pennsylvania, William Penn's colony, where people could be free to worship, following the inner light of the Holy Spirit. He crossed the Atlantic three or four times, but finally died back here, and was buried at Jordans.

Kit's note

Fox's crisis/"openings" began in spring 1646, developing through 1647, 1646 is a defensible anchor date (some historians prefer 1647 as more decisive, a minor point). The "Quaker" nickname and Fox's own preferred name, "Society of Friends," are both correct. But Fox's own writing is more careful than Pawson's summary suggests, Fox consistently held that inward light and Scripture must agree, and defended Quakers constantly against charges of abandoning Scripture, citing it heavily in disputes. What actually alarmed orthodox contemporaries (and what Pawson is really describing) was less Fox's own explicit doctrine than (a) the practical elevation, in Quaker meeting practice, of unmediated present-tense revelation over sacraments and ordained ministry, and (b) more extreme claims by other early Quakers, notably James Nayler's 1656 "triumphal entry" into Bristol (re-enacting Christ's Palm Sunday entry), which briefly scandalized the movement and got Nayler mutilated (tongue bored, forehead branded) and imprisoned. Worth naming Nayler as the concrete cautionary example rather than pinning the "Spirit vs. Scripture" tension on Fox's own stated theology.

"4,000 Quakers in prison at one time" is a widely repeated figure but not independently verifiable to a single documented snapshot. The best-documented aggregate figures across the whole period (1660–1689) run to roughly 10,000–15,000 total imprisonments and several hundred deaths in custody, e.g. 535 Yorkshire Friends imprisoned within two months of 1660; roughly 2,100 arrested from just five London meetings within a year of the 1664 Conventicle Act. Best treated as a plausible peak-moment estimate (likely originating in Joseph Besse's 1753 collection) rather than a hard verified statistic.

But, and here's a thread Pawson himself never connects, even though both figures appear in his own lecture, William Penn had a genuinely close personal relationship with James II (James's father had been friends with Penn's own father). Penn's influence is credited with having "induced the king to issue" the 4 April 1687 Declaration of Indulgence, granting liberty of worship to Catholics and Dissenters alike. In other words, Penn's advocacy for universal toleration directly helped enable James's own Catholic-toleration policy, which then collapsed in the Revolution of 1688.

George Fox, founder of the Society of Friends — nicknamed “Quakers” because they trembled before God in their meetings.
George Fox, founder of the Society of Friends — nicknamed “Quakers” because they trembled before God in their meetings.Portrait traditionally dated 1677. Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.
William Penn at 22 — the young aristocrat who later founded Pennsylvania as a colony of religious liberty, and who lies buried at Jordans meeting house, less than a mile from Pawson's own church.
William Penn at 22 — the young aristocrat who later founded Pennsylvania as a colony of religious liberty, and who lies buried at Jordans meeting house, less than a mile from Pawson's own church.English school, 1666. Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.

James II, William and Mary, and the state of play in 1700

James II, an avowed Roman Catholic, not in any subtle way like Charles II, but completely openly, said: I'll get you back to Rome if it kills me. To do this he used a man who has gone down in history as brutal, Judge Jeffreys, James II's right-hand man. It was too much for England, and as a result of a popular rising against the king, James II had to flee.

Kit's note

Jeffreys's actual notoriety, the 1685 "Bloody Assizes" (roughly 200–320 executed, 800+ transported), followed the Duke of Monmouth's rebellion, a dynastic/political challenge to James's throne, not primarily a religious-conversion campaign; Jeffreys himself was an Anglican, not a Catholic agent. James rewarded him with the Lord Chancellorship afterward and did later use him in service of religious policy (e.g. the 1686 Ecclesiastical Commission against resisting Anglican clergy), so the general pairing is fair, but Pawson's framing collapses two distinct phases, suppressing a rebellion, then advancing Catholic toleration and appointments, into one undifferentiated "restoring Rome" narrative. James's actual religious programme, the 1687 Declaration of Indulgence (reissued 1688), Catholic appointments to Ireland's lord lieutenancy and the Privy Council, and especially the trial of the Seven Bishops (1688, for petitioning against forced reading of the Declaration), is more directly what provoked the 1688 invitation to William of Orange than Jeffreys's assize work.

Finally we have that strange pair, William and Mary, we tend to say "King William and Mary", who came to the throne of England together, and a new era of stability and tolerance began, setting the pattern for the rest of English church life, with one exception: Roman Catholics weren't allowed back in this reign, and they'd wait another hundred years. But tolerance was extended to others: in 1689, nonconformists were at least partially recognized, and the persecutions began to cease.

Kit's note

"Another hundred years" holds for the first relief measure: the Catholic Relief Act of 1778, allowing Catholics to own and inherit property, in exchange for an oath renouncing Stuart claims and papal civil jurisdiction, came almost exactly "a hundred years" after 1689. But full civil and political emancipation (sitting in Parliament, holding higher judicial or state office) didn't arrive until the Roman Catholic Relief Act of 1829, 140 years after 1689. Worth noting: the 1778 Act itself triggered a fierce backlash, the Gordon Riots of 1780, the worst civil unrest of 18th-century England, Catholic chapels and homes burned, roughly 300–700 dead before troops restored order. Tolerance arrived, but unevenly, and fiercely contested even a century on.

I have here a book, Fox's Book of Martyrs. It was required Sunday reading for children in the time of my great-grandfather. I don't know that I'd dare give it to my own children now, or I'd have their teacher after me for filling their heads with such things. It's the most horrible account of Christian martyrs, from New Testament times through to 1682. I fear the author hoped no more stories of martyrdom would need writing after Foxe's Book of Martyrs, and that the toleration gained by the end of that century would be lasting, with no more martyrs. In a sense, there haven't been any more in England. But across the world, there has not been a period of ten years since Jesus died on the cross when Christians have not died for the faith, and it still goes on somewhere in the world.

Kit's note

This is John Foxe's Actes and Monuments (first published 1563, later editions extended forward), worth distinguishing clearly from George Fox, the Quaker founder mentioned a few sections earlier; the two names are easy to confuse in spoken delivery without spelling to disambiguate. Pawson's closing reflection about ongoing global martyrdom is a fair, still-true observation, requiring no correction.

So with the Toleration Act, for the first time nonconformists could put up buildings of worship, and in the very next year, Jordans meeting house was erected, you can date that tolerance if you look at the date on Jordans meeting house, just months after the 1689 Toleration Act. A few years later, Amersham Old Town Baptist Church began, and by the end of the century, nonconformists had a thousand places of worship.

So, at the start of this lecture I gave you the state of play in 1600; now let me give you the state of play in 1700. There are now three parties in the Church of England, still here today: High, Broad, and Low. The High party still hankers after Romish practices in worship. The Low party belongs to the few Puritans who managed to stay in somehow, with very simple, unadorned worship, no vestments, no altar, just a table, worshipping much like the Church of Scotland, and doubtful about having bishops at all. Then there's the Broad party, the one I want to leave you thinking about, because it's the start of the 18th-century story.

Let me ask: what did God think about all this? What did the devil think about all this? I have the feeling the devil was laughing up his sleeve at Christians killing each other. I have the feeling he was thrilled that they were physically destroying one another. But when the Toleration Act came, and they allowed each other to worship freely, the devil had to think up a new tactic, and he thought up a most devilish one: instead of destroying Christians physically, he would think up something that would destroy them mentally.

James II — openly Catholic, determined “to bring England back to Rome if it kills me” — overthrown in the 1688 Revolution.
James II — openly Catholic, determined “to bring England back to Rome if it kills me” — overthrown in the 1688 Revolution.Studio of Godfrey Kneller. Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.
Judge George Jeffreys, James II's right-hand man — most notorious for the “Bloody Assizes” crushing Monmouth's rebellion, not primarily a religious-conversion campaign.
Judge George Jeffreys, James II's right-hand man — most notorious for the “Bloody Assizes” crushing Monmouth's rebellion, not primarily a religious-conversion campaign.Unknown artist, 17th century. Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.
William III and Mary II take the throne — an era of stability begins, and the 1689 Toleration Act lets Dissenters worship openly, though Catholics would wait decades more.
William III and Mary II take the throne — an era of stability begins, and the 1689 Toleration Act lets Dissenters worship openly, though Catholics would wait decades more.Unknown artist, late 17th century. Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.
Title page of John Foxe's “Book of Martyrs” (1563) — once required Sunday reading for children, not to be confused with George Fox, the Quaker founder from the same era.
Title page of John Foxe's “Book of Martyrs” (1563) — once required Sunday reading for children, not to be confused with George Fox, the Quaker founder from the same era.First edition, London, 1563. Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.

The bridge to the 18th century: "queer" ideas from the Continent

Through the 17th century, some very queer ideas had been produced on the Continent, in the name of Christianity. In Sweden there was a scientist called Swedenborg, producing incredible ideas and calling them Christianity, founding the New Jerusalem Church. You may not have come across them, I found more of them in Lancashire. On the Continent was a man called Sosinius, in Italy, saying things like: the Bible is not the word of God, it's helpful, but not simply the word of God as such; and Jesus was not the Son of God, he was simply a great man of God we must imitate; and Jesus didn't die for our sins, he died to give us an example of love. These things were being said, and these ideas were crossing the English Channel.

There were other ideas from a man called Arminius in Holland, who opposed the teaching of Calvin. Ever since, we've had Calvinism and Arminianism, and they came almost to mental blows over this difference. Calvinism emphasized the sovereignty and will of God; Arminianism emphasized the free will of men. And into the Church of England, from the Continent, came a party who really felt that as long as you came to church and worshipped, it didn't much matter whether you held the old beliefs.

Until the end of the 17th century, all the people who disagreed about church order, about bishops, about baptism, agreed about Christian belief and what the gospel was. But now there came into the Church of England, from the Continent, a party who believed you could be much more latitudinarian in your doctrine, in other words, wider, broader in your thinking than the old-fashioned gospel. And this was to kill the Church of England almost dead, by the 1730s, spiritually robbing it of its power and heritage. And that's the story I want to take up next time.

Kit's note

This is the clearest, most unanimous error in this whole section, a chronological one, not a matter of interpretation. Emanuel Swedenborg was born in 1688, right at the tail end of the 17th century, and did not begin his theological/visionary writing until the 1740s, with major works spanning the 1740s–1760s; he died in 1772. The New Jerusalem Church was not founded until 1787, fifteen years after his death, by Robert Hindmarsh and a small group in London. Swedenborgianism is entirely an 18th-century phenomenon (indeed a late-18th-century one) and simply doesn't belong in a survey of 17th-century continental theology. It's a clean, checkable date error, worth flagging plainly, but also a good, human touch: even a careful teacher can misplace a name by a century. Worth noting: Wesley and Whitefield's own generation actually did encounter early Swedenborgianism directly (Wesley wrote critically about Swedenborg in the 1780s; some early Methodists were drawn toward New Church teaching), a genuine point of contact between the Evangelical Revival and its heterodox contemporaries, just a century later than Pawson places it.

On "Sosinius": accurate on substance (Fausto Sozzini did deny the Trinity, Christ's deity, and penal substitution, correctly summarized), but "Italy" is a half-truth. Sozzini was born in Siena (1539) and fled the Roman Inquisition, but his mature system was developed and institutionalized after he settled in Raków, Poland, in 1579; the movement's defining document, the Racovian Catechism, was published in 1605 (the year after his death in 1604), so Socinianism is more accurately a Polish theological export to England (via Socinian refugees after Poland expelled them in 1658) than a straightforwardly Italian one, even though its founder was Italian-born.

On Arminius: no correction needed, a real 17th-century Dutch controversy (Arminius died 1609; condemned at the Synod of Dort, 1618–19). And there's a satisfying forward-looking hook here: this Dutch controversy is the direct theological ancestor of one of the Evangelical Revival's defining internal conflicts, in 1740–41 the Calvinist-Arminian dispute split Whitefield (Calvinist) and Wesley (Arminian), close friends and co-laborers since 1739, into rival connexions.

On "latitudinarianism as a continental import": the broad picture (a doctrinally lax, low-intensity established church by the early 1700s, "killed almost dead") is real and well-documented, but latitudinarianism is better understood as a native Restoration-era Anglican current, associated with the Cambridge Platonists and later Archbishop John Tillotson (1691–94), responding to Locke and Newton, rather than something imported wholesale "from the continent." Continental rationalism (Socinian, Arminian/Remonstrant currents) fed into it, but the label and movement are substantially English in origin.

The century's most dramatic Calvinist controversy actually didn't happen in Holland at all, as Pawson's framing implies, but convulsed Orthodoxy's own historic center, Constantinople. Cyril Lucaris, Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople (elected 1620), published a Latin Confessio in 1629 adopting essentially Calvinist positions (predestination, sola scriptura, two sacraments) in Orthodox language, having sent young Greek clergy to study in Geneva, Holland, and England. The Confession provoked decades of turmoil; Lucaris was repeatedly deposed and reinstated, and in 1638 Sultan Murad IV had him strangled and his body thrown into the Bosphorus (officially for political treason, but the Calvinist affair was the backdrop). The controversy was only formally settled at the Synod of Jerusalem (1672), issuing the Confession of Dositheus, explicitly rejecting Calvinist double predestination, unconditional election, and irresistible grace, reaffirming the older Orthodox synergistic view (grace and free will cooperating) predating the Calvinist-Arminian debate by over a millennium. Perhaps the perfect closing counterpoint for the whole section: while an English university town quietly debated Calvinism versus Arminianism, the Calvinist controversy in the East cost a Patriarch his life.

I've told you this story not to give you a history lesson, but because I want you to realize: if we were living in 1700, you and I could not have met here tonight. We were not free to do so. You would have to conform to a set order of service, settled by act of Parliament; you would have to conform to a rigid church government, settled by act of Parliament; and there would be no freedom for you to meet as we do once a month in a church meeting, to decide what the Lord would have us do. Now this liberty is ours. Praise the Lord for that.

There were those who saw that the New Testament demanded a free church in a free state, that religion was a matter of conscience, those who carried this to the New World, those who carried it to the Continent, but above all, those who stayed here and went to prison and fought it out, that you and I might come to Gold Hill Baptist Church this Sunday evening and worship God as our conscience dictates. Thank God for this liberty. The price of liberty is eternal vigilance. We could lose that liberty again, very easily, as others have lost it. And we need not only to look back into the past, but to praise God that in the future, he can keep us where we ought to be.

I've also told you this story to say this: in spite of all these battles, in spite of all these difficulties, the church of God goes on, and in every generation the Holy Spirit converts men and women and makes them blazing preachers of the gospel, and sends them out. Even in spite of all this, the church was still there. Christians were still there. The gospel was still there. The Bible was still there. For Jesus said: "I will build my church, and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it."


PHẦN BA: THẾ KỶ 18, VÒI NƯỚC LẠNH VÀ VÒI NƯỚC NÓNG

The final lecture in this trio opens with Acts 17, Paul and Silas at Thessalonica, accused of "turning the world upside down"; at Berea, where the Jews were "more noble," examining the Scriptures daily to see if what Paul preached was true; then Athens, Paul standing in the Areopagus, preaching about "the unknown God", among the believers there was Dionysius, a member of the Areopagus council itself. Pawson lingers on the Bereans to tell his own congregation: that's exactly what he hopes they'll do with what he preaches, go home, check the Scriptures, and if it's not there, don't believe it.

Kit's note

This is an accurate Scripture reading, needing no content correction, just one small transcription slip: Pawson says "Demeris," which should read Damaris (). What's worth keeping most is Pawson's own methodological spirit here, Berean "nobility," going home to check what the preacher just said, as the implicit invitation for this very fact-checking piece: it's only doing what Pawson himself asked his congregation to do.

He tells how, just weeks before the 18th century opened, in November 1699, "Master Gulliver" was wrecked on the land of Lilliput, Gulliver's Travels was born, written by Jonathan Swift, an Irishman who tried many times to settle in England, failed, and finally died insane in Dublin. It's not a children's book, it's a savage attack on English society at the start of the 18th century. A few years later, Robinson Crusoe was shipwrecked on his island, and seems much happier there than when he returns to England in 1715. Both books introduce what Pawson wants to say before turning to the church: England was going to pieces. Socially, England was in a bad way. And the question is why?

Pawson sums up the whole evening in a simple image: man was turning on the cold tap, and God was turning on the hot tap, throughout the 18th century. Man turning the cold tap of what we call rationalism, the intellect alone, reason alone. God turning the hot tap of what we call revivalism, calling great men to preach the gospel, raising the temperature of English society. The biggest lesson to draw from the 18th century: a man's beliefs affect his behavior. What a man thinks in his heart, so he will be in his outward life. "As a man thinketh in his heart, so is he", that might be the text for the whole evening.

The Lecture's Central Metaphor

The cold tap, the hot tap

🧊

Cold tap: Rationalism

  • Newton, Bacon, Descartes: a universe governed by fixed law
  • Deism: God made it, then left it running, like a clock
  • Latitudinarianism, Moderatism, Unitarianism creep into the churches
  • Society: Tyburn hangings, gambling, cheap gin, moral decay

🔥

Hot tap: The Evangelical Revival

  • Zinzendorf & the Moravians, Germany
  • Whitefield, the Wesley brothers — England
  • Edwards, Brainerd, Frelinghuysen — North America
  • Harris, Rowlands, Griffith Jones — Wales

Pawson's thesis: belief shapes behavior. As cold reason snuffed out belief in a God who acts, social morality cooled with it. But right then, God “turned on the hot tap” — through individuals he raised up, not committees or councils.

Jonathan Swift, author of “Gulliver's Travels” (1726) — a savage satire of English society, not the children's book it's often mistaken for.
Jonathan Swift, author of “Gulliver's Travels” (1726) — a savage satire of English society, not the children's book it's often mistaken for.Charles Jervas, c. 1710. Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.

The cold tap: science, deism, and the "lawgivers of society"

Part of this was the influence of science. Copernicus said the planets revolve around the sun, not the earth. Galileo, with his telescope, confirmed it. Isaac Newton was still discovering the law of gravity through apples. But above all, Francis Bacon and Descartes said: the universe we live in is governed by laws that can't be broken. If an apple comes off a tree, it must fall, that's the law of gravity, unbreakable. This, with one blow, swept out miracle, and swept out a great deal of what happens in the Bible, since much of the Bible seems to run against such natural laws. Bacon went further, and you'd be amazed how modern he sounds, how much we're indebted to him, saying that only what you can prove by observation is true. If you can't prove something scientifically by observation, you needn't believe it; you mustn't accept anything on authority. That was a tremendous step forward, or backward, depending how you look at it. But it's astonishing how a sixth-former today says exactly the same thing: I can't believe it unless you can prove it; I can't believe in God unless you demonstrate him to me. They're just echoing Francis Bacon. And frankly, that idea kills religion dead, because the one thing you cannot prove by observation is the eternal world to which God, the devil, the angels, and everything else religious, belong.

Kit's note

No major error here, the popular genealogy (Copernicus → Galileo → Newton → mechanistic universe → challenge to miracle) is a defensible simplification. But there's a risk of over-neatness: Newton himself was a devout (if theologically unorthodox) believer, who wrote more on biblical prophecy than physics, and did not see his laws as anti-miraculous. The "mechanized universe equals no God" reading is a later Deist appropriation of Newton, not Newton's own view.

So where does God fit in? Did people stop believing in God in the 18th century? No. But they switched from a belief we call theism to a belief we call deism, one step on the way to atheism. Theism is the belief that God created the world and controls it. Deism is the belief that God created it but can't control it. Atheism is the belief he didn't even create it, because there's no God to create it. One of the most popular images, propounded by a bishop: the world is like a gigantic clock. Once you've wound it up, there's nothing more you can do, it just runs according to its own laws. So they said: God made the world, wound it up, and now can only sit back. There is a God, but he can't do anything. And that's really a dead sort of God. You wouldn't pray much to a God who couldn't do anything, would you? And this was killing prayer, killing belief in a living God still in control of everything.

This kind of thinking, that God is far away and can't do much, crept right into the churches, under different names in different places: in the Church of England they called it latitudinarianism; in the Church of Scotland, moderatism; and among the Baptists, unitarianism, because one belief was that God couldn't possibly have "come down" at Christmas, and Jesus must simply have been a great man. And so watered-down faith began to disappear. Every denomination suffered from this thinking. Some Baptist churches closed because of it. Worship became very formal, very dead. You came only to pay respects to the deity who made it all, but you were never to expect him to do anything. God couldn't. He was outside what he had made.

Kit's note

This is the single most important correction in the whole "cold tap" section: "Baptists: unitarianism" is a significant overgeneralization. The Unitarian drift crystallized specifically at the Salters' Hall conference (1719) in London, where Dissenting ministers split over subscribing to Trinitarian formulas. It hollowed out the General (Arminian) Baptists and many Presbyterian congregations over the following decades, the old General Baptist Assembly (founded 1653) lost numerous churches to Unitarianism or saw them die out. But the Particular (Calvinistic) Baptists ran the opposite trajectory across the same century, flourishing and producing Andrew Fuller, John Ryland, and William Carey, founder of the Baptist Missionary Society Pawson himself celebrates later. So when Pawson says "the Baptists drifted into unitarianism," he means specifically the General Baptists, the Calvinistic wing of the same family was, at the very same moment, incubating the modern missionary movement. This is a sharper illustration of Pawson's own cold-tap/hot-tap thesis than anything he says explicitly.

It wasn't only "laws of nature" being discovered. Other writers thought they'd discovered "laws of human nature," laws of society. John Locke wrote about the laws governing society. Voltaire, living in "the age of Louis XIV" in France. Rousseau, another Frenchman, with his famous saying: "man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains." Then there was the Scotsman Adam Smith, writing a very big book on balancing imports and exports and the division of labor, strangely modern, I wonder if today's chancellors have read Adam Smith. And Mary Wollstonecraft, fighting for the rights, you might almost say divine rights, of women, writing a book advocating women voting, playgrounds at schools, co-education, revolutionary in its day. All these were trying to discover laws of society, laws of human nature. But they were all saying the same thing: the laws of society, like the laws of nature, don't need God. The natural world runs without God. The social world, human nature, runs without him too. And it was from these ideas that things like the French Revolution came, Rousseau has been called the father of the French Revolution.

Kit's note

This is a confirmed error, flagged in every independent research pass: Voltaire is misplaced. Born 1694, in the last two decades of Louis XIV's 72-year reign (which ended with the king's death in 1715, when Voltaire was 20), Voltaire's entire adult literary and philosophical career, the Lettres philosophiques, Candide, the Ferney years, the campaign against clerical abuse in the Calas affair, his 1745 appointment as royal historiographer, unfolds under Louis XV (r. 1715–1774) and briefly Louis XVI. "The age of Louis XIV" properly denotes the earlier high-classical court culture of Bossuet, Racine, and Pascal, a different cultural moment entirely. An interesting wrinkle: Voltaire himself wrote a celebrated history titled Le Siècle de Louis XIV (1751), about a period he hadn't lived through as an adult, which may be the actual source of the confusion.

The church tried to fight back with the weapons of the intellect. Two bishops, Bishop Butler and Bishop Barclay, really tried to preach intellectually, matching the evidence against God with evidence for God, making the whole thing something of an intellectual argument. Quite frankly, that never yet did much good. You can never argue a person into spiritual life. You might remove some of their questions and barriers. But you'll never build a church on intellectual argument alone.

Kit's note

Bishop Joseph Butler (1692–1752) and his Analogy of Religion (1736) are real and exactly as described, the era's leading episcopal apologetic response to deism. But "Bishop Barclay" does not exist as a historical figure matching this role. No prominent 18th-century Church of England bishop named Barclay wrote anti-deist apologetics alongside Butler. This is almost certainly a mishearing or mistranscription of Bishop George Berkeley (Bishop of Cloyne from 1734), the Irish philosopher, whose Alciphron, or the Minute Philosopher (1732) is precisely the sustained, famous rebuttal of deists and freethinkers that would naturally pair with Butler's Analogy. (Robert Barclay, the genuinely famous theologian named "Barclay" in church history, was a 17th-century Quaker apologist, predating this debate by over 50 years, a different tradition entirely.) Also worth noting: Butler's Analogy is more sophisticated than Pawson's dismissive verdict allows, it argued from the difficulties common to both nature and revealed religion rather than pure evidentialism, and was respected even by skeptics like Hume.

Isaac Newton — the scientist who formalized the laws of nature, yet was himself a devout (if theologically unorthodox) believer; it was the Deist generation after him that turned a “law-governed” universe into a reason God need not intervene.
Isaac Newton — the scientist who formalized the laws of nature, yet was himself a devout (if theologically unorthodox) believer; it was the Deist generation after him that turned a “law-governed” universe into a reason God need not intervene.Godfrey Kneller, 1689. Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.
Francis Bacon — founder of the modern empirical method: “believe nothing you cannot prove by observation” — a principle that, applied to religion, gradually squeezed out the supernatural.
Francis Bacon — founder of the modern empirical method: “believe nothing you cannot prove by observation” — a principle that, applied to religion, gradually squeezed out the supernatural.English school, early 17th century. Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.
John Locke, the philosopher who wrote on the “laws” governing human society — his ideas went straight into the American Declaration of Independence via Jefferson's pen.
John Locke, the philosopher who wrote on the “laws” governing human society — his ideas went straight into the American Declaration of Independence via Jefferson's pen.Godfrey Kneller, 1697. Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.
Voltaire — often misplaced in “the age of Louis XIV”; his mature career actually unfolds under Louis XV, though he himself wrote a famous history of the earlier reign.
Voltaire — often misplaced in “the age of Louis XIV”; his mature career actually unfolds under Louis XV, though he himself wrote a famous history of the earlier reign.Nicolas de Largillière, 1718. Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau — “man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains” — called the spiritual father of the French Revolution.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau — “man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains” — called the spiritual father of the French Revolution.Allan Ramsay, 1766. Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.
Adam Smith, the Scottish economist who wrote on the balance of trade and division of labor — one of the 18th century's “lawgivers of society” Pawson mentions.
Adam Smith, the Scottish economist who wrote on the balance of trade and division of labor — one of the 18th century's “lawgivers of society” Pawson mentions.Unknown artist (the “Muir portrait”), c. 1800. Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.
Mary Wollstonecraft, who fought for women's right to vote and to be educated — radical ideas in her day, later made reality.
Mary Wollstonecraft, who fought for women's right to vote and to be educated — radical ideas in her day, later made reality.John Opie, c. 1797. Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.

England drifts, while America and France revolt

Jefferson wrote Locke's philosophy straight into the Declaration of Independence. Read Locke's book first, then the Declaration, and you'll see where America got it from. In France, July 1789, all these new ideas burst into the French Revolution. Now reason was to be the goddess. And on the very altar of Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris, they enthroned a goddess of reason, declared no more God, and the reign of terror began. Later, Napoleon entered Rome, confiscated the papal territories, and brought the Pope as a prisoner to France. That was the kind of turmoil going on. In America, the revolt of the colonies and the Declaration of Independence. In France, the French Revolution. And in England, with all this turmoil of ideas, what happened? The answer: precious little. England just drifted downward, while everywhere else had a revolution. Again, quite typically English, we just let things slide.

Kit's note

The sequencing here is compressed and slightly reversed. The Festival of Reason at Notre-Dame is real, 10 November 1793, organized by radical Hébertists (Chaumette, Momoro, Hébert), replacing the Christian altar with one to Liberty/Reason, with a living woman staged as the personified goddess. But the Terror is conventionally dated earlier than 1793's end (the Law of Suspects, September 1793), it was already well underway before the November Festival, not triggered by it. And "no more God" oversimplifies a genuinely contested, short-lived episode: the Cult of Reason was one radical faction's project, not a unanimous Revolutionary program, and it didn't last, within months Robespierre, judging atheism politically dangerous, suppressed it and in June 1794 instituted the rival Cult of the Supreme Being, an explicitly Deist cult. This actually reinforces Pawson's own larger thesis (deism as the era's dominant religious posture) better than "no more God" does.

Napoleon's personal role is overstated, and the Rome episode is telescoped with a later one. It was General Louis-Alexandre Berthier, acting for the French Directory, who occupied Rome on 10 February 1798 and proclaimed a "Roman Republic"; Pope Pius VI, refusing to renounce temporal power, was arrested on 20 February 1798 and deported, Napoleon himself was in Egypt for most of 1798–99 and wasn't personally present. Pius VI was moved through several locations and died a prisoner at Valence, France, on 29 August 1799, never returning to Rome, the first pope in centuries to die in exile. Napoleon's better-known personal clash with a pope, arresting Pius VII, came later, in 1809, after Napoleon was Emperor. Pawson's account appears to conflate the two episodes.

Kit's note

For Catholic memory this isn't a small coda but a decade-long trauma: a reigning pope dying in captivity, the Papal States' temporal power extinguished (briefly restored in 1800, lost definitively in 1870). And it didn't come from nowhere, Rome's own house had already been under severe strain for decades before 1789: Jansenism (condemned by the papal bull Unigenitus, 1713, but persisting, entangled with Gallican resistance to papal authority); Josephinism in the Habsburg lands (Emperor Joseph II subjecting monasteries and seminaries to state control in the 1780s); and, the single largest institutional blow of the century, the Bourbon monarchies of Portugal (1759), France (1764), and Spain (1767) forcing Pope Clement XIV to suppress the entire Society of Jesus worldwide by the brief Dominus ac Redemptor (21 July 1773), not restored until 1814. The same rationalist current Pawson traces through English deism was, on the Continent, hollowing out the Catholic establishment from within for a generation before the Revolution's dechristianization campaign delivered the final blow.

Also worth noting: Pawson's mention of Catholics being "let back in" to English life by century's end is true but partial. The Catholic Relief Act 1778 and the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1791 removed some penal restrictions, but chapels still couldn't have steeples or bells, priests couldn't wear vestments in public, monastic orders were still banned, and there was no right to vote or sit in Parliament; full civil emancipation waited until 1829. Worth naming the violent backlash the 1778 Act provoked: the Gordon Riots, June 1780, London, the worst civil unrest of 18th-century England, Catholic chapels and homes burned, roughly 300–700 dead before troops restored order. The "hot tap" revival Pawson celebrates ran through the very same decades as raw, sometimes murderous English anti-Catholicism, a tension his lecture elides entirely, and worth one honest sentence.

So England drifted rather than revolted. Religiously, there was a hearty dislike of what was called "enthusiasm", nowadays we'd say emotionalism. People went to church and said: no emotionalism in church, no fanaticism, just a nice intellectual talk from the vicar. But no getting excited. No getting worked up. No showing any feeling. And of course that's not a balanced religion. Lethargy and apathy crept into the congregations. A century earlier they went to fight for religion. Now they just sat in a pew and yawned. Religion, I'm afraid, became very much the religion of the upper class. The working man was poor, ignorant, and simply not welcome.

Bishop Butler was offered the Archbishopric of Canterbury, and is said to have replied: "it's too late for me to save a dying church. It will have disappeared in my lifetime." That was the state of the church. And where the spiritual state is like that, the moral state will be worse. If you wanted an afternoon's entertainment in the 18th century, you got your family together and went up to Tyburn, now Hyde Park Corner, near Marble Arch, and took a picnic, to watch people being hanged. It was great fun. Children. Women. Men. You could be hanged for stealing five shillings' worth of goods, or a single shilling. If you wanted other amusement, you went to a cockpit and watched cock-fighting. And of course the quickest way out of London and the other industrial areas was the public house, drink was so cheap the signs hanging in the lanes simply read: "Drunk for a penny. Dead drunk for tuppence. Free straw to lie on." This led to the most appalling abuses, heavy drinking, heavy gambling, heavy fighting. If you want to study English social life in this cold, intellectual religious period, read Fielding's Tom Jones, or study Hogarth's cartoons, The Rake's Progress, or read Boswell's Life of Johnson. One contemporary writer summed it all up: "Decay in religion, licentiousness in morals, public corruption, and profaneness of language." That was England, in the first 30–40 years of the 18th century. No wonder a man was busy writing Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Edward Gibbon. I'm surprised he didn't go on to write Decline and Fall of English Society, he easily could have.

So what stopped England from having a revolution? Why didn't the poor rise up? Why wasn't there a complete turning-upside-down of society, as in America, as in France? The answer: during this century, God turned on the hot tap.

The United States Declaration of Independence — Jefferson wrote Locke's philosophy directly into this founding document.
The United States Declaration of Independence — Jefferson wrote Locke's philosophy directly into this founding document.The “Stone” engraving, 1823 (after the 1776 original). Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.
The Festival of the Goddess of Reason at Notre-Dame, November 1793 — “no more God”; yet within months Robespierre himself suppressed it, replacing it with worship of a deist “Supreme Being.”
The Festival of the Goddess of Reason at Notre-Dame, November 1793 — “no more God”; yet within months Robespierre himself suppressed it, replacing it with worship of a deist “Supreme Being.”19th-century illustration of the 1793 event. Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.
Hogarth's “A Rake's Progress,” Plate 8 (In the Madhouse) — the cartoon series depicting early 18th-century England's moral decay that Pawson references.
Hogarth's “A Rake's Progress,” Plate 8 (In the Madhouse) — the cartoon series depicting early 18th-century England's moral decay that Pawson references.William Hogarth, 1735. Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.
“Industry and Idleness,” Plate 11: an execution at Tyburn — where families once picnicked to watch hangings, including for crimes as small as stealing a few shillings.
“Industry and Idleness,” Plate 11: an execution at Tyburn — where families once picnicked to watch hangings, including for crimes as small as stealing a few shillings.William Hogarth, 1747. Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.

The hot tap: Wales, America, and Count von Zinzendorf

God's method is always this: to choose a personality, and fill that personality with his Holy Spirit, enabling them to do it. This has always been God's method. It's very rarely that God has worked through committees or larger groups of people. His method is always to raise up men to do the job, and it always will be, as long as those men remain in the relationship to Christ they should be.

For those of you from Wales, he raised up Howell Harris, Griffith Jones, and Daniel Rowlands, who changed the course of Welsh history. For those from America, it was in this century that he raised up Theodore Frelinghuysen, and through him influenced the great preacher Jonathan Edwards, and that great man of prayer David Brainerd, who went as a missionary to the Indians and died after only three years, but changed American history. It's estimated that in the 18th century, in America alone, 300,000 people were led to the Lord, considering the population then, that's quite a revival, with camp meetings flourishing at the end of the century.

Kit's note

Theodorus Jacobus Frelinghuysen's revival (Dutch Reformed, Raritan Valley, New Jersey, from 1720) is real and a genuinely early spark of the Great Awakening, bearing revival fruit as early as 1727, before Edwards's Northampton awakening (1734–35). But the "Frelinghuysen → Edwards" influence line is indirect. Historians typically describe them as parallel, largely independent originators of revival in different colonies and denominations (Dutch Reformed vs. Congregationalist), whose streams later converged chiefly through Gilbert Tennent, who was directly discipled by Frelinghuysen and interacted with Edwards's circle. "Frelinghuysen → Brainerd" is even more indirect, running through Tennent and the New Brunswick Presbytery network rather than personal mentorship. Better framing: "part of the same wave, cross-pollinating through Tennent," not teacher-and-student.

Brainerd's active field ministry ran about four years (1743–1747), not three, among the Delaware/Housatonic peoples at Kaunaumeek, the Forks of the Delaware, and Crossweeksung. He died of tuberculosis 9 October 1747, age 29, at Jonathan Edwards's own home in Northampton. Brainerd's real historical weight is his posthumous diary, not his field results, Edwards edited and published it as An Account of the Life of the Late Reverend Mr. David Brainerd (1749), one of the most influential missionary biographies in Protestant history, directly shaping William Carey and Henry Martyn (both of whom appear later in this same lecture). This is a stronger, more accurate "changed American history" claim than the bare three-years-and-died framing.

"300,000 led to the Lord" is unverifiable and should be read as Pawson's own estimate, not a documented statistic. No standard academic treatment of the First Great Awakening cites this figure; it would represent a very large fraction of the entire colonial population (roughly 2.5 million by 1775).

But the two countries I want to talk about are first Germany, then England, because they're closely related. I want to tell you about a man God raised up in Germany, called Count von Zinzendorf. (You have some of his hymns in the hymn book here, "Jesus, Still Lead On" and "Jesus, Thy Blood and Righteousness.") Zinzendorf had a huge estate in Saxony called Herrnhut. And to that estate one day came some beggars, worshippers of the Lord Jesus Christ, remnants of the church of John Huss in Bohemia. Even centuries after Huss, they still met simply around the Lord Jesus Christ. They'd been turned out of their own country, and they came to von Zinzendorf. He'd been converted not long before, and he said: come in, you can have my estate, build houses here, I'll protect you, and together we'll build a Christian community. And they did, calling it the Moravian Community, and they became the first real missionary society in Europe. There had been other attempts at missionary work before, but that little group of Moravians sent out no fewer than 25 missionaries in the first few years of their life, taking the gospel of Christ to the utmost parts of the earth.

Von Zinzendorf once said: "I have only one passion. It is Jesus." And that sums up his life. No wonder he was the great man he was.

Kit's note

The Hus lineage is real but compressed, and the precise dates strengthen rather than undercut Pawson's point. Jan Hus was burned at the stake 6 July 1415 at the Council of Constance (a Catholic council), despite traveling under an imperial safe-conduct, a breach of faith Catholic historians themselves now generally regret. About forty years later, radicalized followers, shaped by the lay theologian Petr Chelčický, organized as the Unitas Fratrum ("Unity of the Brethren") in 1457 at Kunvald, a distinct, stricter "believers' church" break from both Rome and the more moderate Hussite Utraquists. After brutal Counter-Reformation suppression following the Battle of White Mountain (1620), the Brethren survived underground for roughly a century as the "Hidden Seed" before a remnant reached Zinzendorf's estate in 1722, 307 years after Hus's death, 265 after the Unitas Fratrum's founding. So "remnants of the church of John Huss" is shorthand for a far more precise, remarkable underground-survival story.

"First real missionary society in Europe" needs a scoping qualifier. It's defensible as "first Protestant lay/voluntary missionary movement" (predating William Carey's Baptist Missionary Society by 60 years, community-wide rather than clergy-led), but flatly stated, it erases centuries of prior organized Catholic missions (Jesuits, Franciscans, Dominicans since the 16th century) and organized Orthodox missions (Russian Orthodox monastic missions to Finno-Ugric and Siberian peoples going back to St Stephen of Perm, 14th century, continuing through St Gury of Kazan into the 17th–18th century). Better framing: "first Protestant missionary society driven by ordinary laypeople rather than clergy or a colonial crown", still a remarkable claim.

The "25 missionaries" figure, if anything, understates the scale. The first two Moravian missionaries (Leonard Dober, David Nitschmann) left for the Danish West Indies on 8 October 1732. From a home community of well under 1,000 (some sources say under 600), historians count roughly 70 missionaries sent out in the first decade (1732–1742), including 18 who left for St. Croix/St. Thomas alone in August 1733, and 226 by 1760. Missiologist Kenneth Scott Latourette treats Herrnhut, not any 19th-century society, as the true birthplace of the modern Protestant missionary movement, on exactly this basis: proportionally the highest missions-sending rate of any Protestant body until the 19th century.

Jonathan Edwards, preacher and theologian of America's First Great Awakening — who edited and published David Brainerd's diary, one of the most influential missionary biographies in Protestant history.
Jonathan Edwards, preacher and theologian of America's First Great Awakening — who edited and published David Brainerd's diary, one of the most influential missionary biographies in Protestant history.The Princeton portrait, 18th century. Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.
Count von Zinzendorf — “I have only one passion. It is Jesus” — who sheltered Moravian refugees on his estate, birthing the modern missionary movement.
Count von Zinzendorf — “I have only one passion. It is Jesus” — who sheltered Moravian refugees on his estate, birthing the modern missionary movement.Unknown artist, 18th century. Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.

George Whitefield: "rope of sand"

The first man God laid his hand on was a young man working his way through Oxford by cleaning the shoes of the other students. His name: George Whitefield. God laid his hand on that young man, going places, hard-working, disciplined. But God said: George Whitefield, you're a sinner and you need salvation. Through a great spiritual struggle, George Whitefield came to know the Lord Jesus Christ. He began to preach. A year after his conversion he was preaching, I forget where, but I remember his first text: , "If any man be in Christ, he is a new creature." He preached it at Gloucester. And when he preached that sermon, he said something that mortally offended most of his hearers: "I do not care if you've been baptized. I do not care if you've had water on your forehead in the name of the Trinity." He said: "You must be born again." He said: "I've got the new birth. And I want you to have it." When he finished preaching, 17 people were born again. That was the beginning. He was soon preaching to 30,000 and 40,000 at once. He not only traveled England, he went to Scotland, preaching to 40,000 in Edinburgh, then crossed the Atlantic thirteen times, dying in America at the end. But he preached everywhere he could go. George Whitefield was one of the greatest servants of God England has seen.

The tragedy is that most of his work disappeared after his death, because he never organized follow-up for his converts. The only person who really urged him to start churches, in a sense, was the Countess of Huntingdon. If you've ever seen a church with "The Countess of Huntingdon's Connexion" over the door, you're looking back to the days of that lady, who supported George Whitefield. But when he died, he said: "I feel my work has been a rope of sand, and will disappear very quickly." And in fact it has. You don't hear of any Whitefieldites today. You don't hear of any groups bearing his name today, except that Countess of Huntingdon connexion, and one or two other small groups. But nevertheless, he led thousands to the Lord. I don't mean they fell away, I mean they found their way into other churches.

Kit's note

"17 people born again" is almost certainly a transformed legend, not a documented fact. The genuinely well-attested anecdote, from Whitefield's own journal and every standard biography, has the opposite valence: a complaint was lodged with Bishop Martin Benson of Gloucester that Whitefield's 27 June 1736 sermon had driven "fifteen persons mad," to which Benson reportedly replied he hoped the "madness" wouldn't be forgotten by the next Sunday. There's no primary-source record of a specific "17 conversions" tally from that sermon, Pawson (or his source material) appears to have converted a well-known story about alarmed critics, counting people driven to religious distress, into a triumphant conversion count. A textbook example of hagiographic drift in oral preaching traditions. Also worth noting: that first sermon's actual subject was "The Necessity and Benefit of Religious Society", Whitefield's full-throated new-birth preaching intensified over the following months from spring 1737, not necessarily verbatim in the debut sermon.

The "40,000 in Edinburgh" figure is likely misattributed. Whitefield's largest recorded Edinburgh-area crowds were closer to 15,000 (contemporary accounts of his 1741 visit); the truly massive figure historians cite, around 100,000, was at Cambuslang, near Glasgow, during the 1742 "Cambuslang Wark" revival, not Edinburgh itself.

Kit's note

The Countess of Huntingdon's Connexion is undersold as "one or two other small groups." In fact Selina Hastings built a real network of proprietary chapels from the 1760s, trained her own ministers at Trevecca College, and, when Church of England authorities moved against her chapels' legal status, formally registered them as Dissenting meeting houses under the Toleration Act (1781–83), with the first ordination of her own ministers on 9 March 1783. This produced a genuine Calvinistic-Methodist free church with its own confession (the Fifteen Articles of Faith). From a free-church perspective, this is arguably the more theologically consistent outcome of Whitefield's Calvinistic revivalism than Wesley's decades-long agonizing over whether Methodism could stay inside the Church of England (see below).

Though not the first in order if we look at the date of his birth, I place him first in the order of merit, without any hesitation. Of all the spiritual heroes of a hundred years ago, none saw so soon as Whitefield what the times demanded... There are Lutherans and Wesleyans in the present day, but there are no Whitefieldites. The great evangelist of last century was a simple, guileless man, who lived for one thing only, and that was to preach Christ., J. C. Ryle, "Christian Leaders of the Eighteenth Century" (1885)
George Whitefield — the poor Oxford servitor who once cleaned his fellow students' shoes, who became an open-air preacher to tens of thousands, crossing the Atlantic thirteen times.
George Whitefield — the poor Oxford servitor who once cleaned his fellow students' shoes, who became an open-air preacher to tens of thousands, crossing the Atlantic thirteen times.John Russell, 1770. Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.
Selina Hastings, Countess of Huntingdon — the one person who really pushed Whitefield to build churches, leaving behind a network of Calvinistic Methodist chapels that survives to this day.
Selina Hastings, Countess of Huntingdon — the one person who really pushed Whitefield to build churches, leaving behind a network of Calvinistic Methodist chapels that survives to this day.Unknown artist, 18th century (National Portrait Gallery). Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.

John Wesley: "a brand plucked from the burning"

The other great man I must tell you about, and here I'll take more time, because he deserves it, is John Wesley, one of my great heroes. The story begins in a little village in Lincolnshire, where my wife and I were married, Epworth. We were married in the Wesley Memorial Church. And in that rectory, something happened, something new was born.

John Wesley's grandparents had been Independents, which explains a great deal. But his parents were both Anglican by conviction, serving as vicar and vicar's wife of that little town of Epworth. Samuel Wesley, the father, was quite an amazing man, a bit of a poet, spending most of his years writing a poem on Job that was never really popular, but he passed on to his sons a poetic gift. But the mother was the truly amazing one: old Susanna Wesley. She had 19 children, trained them not to cry after they were a year old, and when they turned five, taught them to read, by the end of their first week, they could read . How much they understood, I don't know, and how she did it, I don't know, no initial training alphabet, none of your modern toys to help. She gave one hour a week to each child, to help them grow spiritually. And when you study the life of Susanna Wesley, you've studied the beginning of Methodism, for that's what was to come.

When John, or "Jackie" as she called him, was seven years old, the rectory caught fire. They got all the children out, bar one, Jackie, little John. Those who've seen the film will remember the dramatic moment when they saw him at the upstairs window, and how the villagers climbed on each other's backs to rescue him. She clutched him to her bosom and said: you're a brand plucked from the burning. And from then she believed John would be her greatest son. And so he was.

Kit's note

Wesley was five, not seven, at the time of the fire, flagged unanimously across every independent research pass, and one of the clearest corrections in the whole piece. He was born 17 June 1703; the fire was the night of 9 February 1709, he wouldn't turn six for another four months. Every reputable source gives "aged 5," or at most rounds to "aged 6." No reputable source gives age 7. Worth adding: Wesley carried this self-image his whole life, not just as a childhood anecdote, he drafted his own epitaph in his Journal (26 November 1753), opening: "Here lieth the body of John Wesley, a brand plucked out of the burning."

Kit's note

Susanna reared 10 children to adulthood, not 12. Standard biographical consensus gives 19 children born, roughly 9 dying in infancy, and 10 surviving to adulthood (seven daughters, three sons, John, Charles, Samuel Jr.). "12" is on the high end of any commonly cited figure.

Kit's note

Susanna's disciplined, catechetical, rule-governed home piety is frequently identified as the direct behavioral template for what became "Methodism", not just the name but the method itself. This traces directly to her own upbringing: her father, Samuel Annesley, was a prominent Nonconformist divine ejected from his living in 1662 (the same Great Ejection noted in the 17th-century section above), and Susanna herself was raised in that Dissenting tradition before conforming to the Church of England as a young woman. Pawson's own throwaway aside, "independents... which explains a great deal", gestures at exactly this but never develops it: Susanna's "conquering the will before instruction" pedagogy sits in direct continuity with Puritan household-religion manuals (e.g. Richard Baxter's family-worship guidance), meaning Methodism's famous methodicalness is, at root, one generation removed from Puritan domestic discipline.

Susanna Wesley — mother of 19 children, roughly 10 surviving to adulthood — whose disciplined, methodical household piety gave her sons the very template that became the name “Methodist.”
Susanna Wesley — mother of 19 children, roughly 10 surviving to adulthood — whose disciplined, methodical household piety gave her sons the very template that became the name “Methodist.”Unknown artist, 18th century. Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.

He went to Charterhouse School, then Oxford, joining his brother Charles. There they formed what they called the Holy Club, and my, it offended everybody else too, as such a name might suggest. They got up at four in the morning to pray, did their studies as ordinary students during the day, then visited the jail, and ran a dispensary for the sick. And they were trying desperately to save themselves by being good. One member of the Holy Club was George Whitefield, that's where their paths crossed. This little group of students were desperately trying to get to heaven by being good. They still hadn't learned how you become a Christian. They were so methodical in the way they got up, and went to the jail, and did this and that, keeping accounts of it all, that other students stopped calling them the Holy Club and gave them a nickname: Methodists. It was a term of abuse. But the nickname stuck, and has stuck to this very day.

The time came when John felt he still wasn't doing enough for God, so he offered for the ministry, as his father had before him, as his brother had before him. John and Charles were ordained by the Archbishop of Canterbury, priests of the Church of England, and still not Christians. And because they knew this in their hearts, they felt they weren't doing enough for God, so they volunteered as missionaries to Georgia, to the Red Indians, thinking: surely if you go as a missionary, you get saved. And they went out to save their own souls. Could you get that far without being a Christian? Of course you can. And they did. They were not only priests, they were missionaries. And they hadn't saved their own souls, desperately trying to.

On the way out, in the middle of the Atlantic, they struck a storm. Everyone panicked, threw things overboard to lighten the ship, thought the end had come. But in the middle of the ship were a group of people, quiet, calm, praying. Moravian refugees, from Hanhut, who knew Count von Zinzendorf. John Wesley went up to them afterward, in his clergyman's garb: why weren't you afraid? They said: why should we be? And one of them began asking about his soul: do you know that Jesus is your savior? This clergyman, John Wesley, replied: I know he is the savior of the world. But do you know that he is your savior? Wesley said yes. But in his diary that night he admitted it was a lie, writing: I go to Georgia to save my own soul. How can I save the souls of the Indians? He came back to London after three miserable years of failure, wondering what to do. His brother came back too, an equal failure.

But praise God, God had someone waiting for them in London: a man called Peter Böhler (Pawson pronounces it "Peter Berler"), another Moravian, from Count Zinzendorf. Peter Böhler got hold of them, talked to them. And there was one never-to-be-forgotten Sunday: John Wesley went to St Paul's Cathedral to worship that morning. Reading his Bible that morning, he opened it and read: "Thou art not far from the kingdom of God." And that night he went to a little meeting of the Moravian Germans on Aldersgate Street. (There's a Barclays Bank there now, but they've put a plaque marking where it happened.) In Aldersgate Street, on 24 May 1738, he went to the meeting, and they read aloud Luther's preface to Romans. (I wonder how many people today would sit through a theological preface being read aloud for hours in church.) But when the clock struck a quarter to nine that night, John Wesley says this: "I felt my heart strangely warmed. I felt I did trust Christ, that he had saved me from my sins, even mine, saved me from the law of sin and death." And an assurance was given him in that moment that he really was a forgiven sinner.

Here was a man who'd been a failed missionary, an ordained priest of the Church of England, who'd done so much good for other people, and yet had never known his own sins forgiven. That's what happens when you try to save yourself, because you're putting your trust in what you do instead of what Christ does. And this was the one thing he'd never learned.

Kit's note

This whole sequence, Peter Böhler, the St Paul's morning, the Aldersgate meeting on the night of 24 May 1738, reading Luther's preface to Romans, and the "heart strangely warmed" quote, is essentially perfect and can be retold with confidence. Wesley's own Journal entry for 24–25 May 1738 matches almost verbatim: "About a quarter before nine, while [the leader] was describing the change which God works in the heart through faith in Christ, I felt my heart strangely warmed." The pronunciation "Berler" for Böhler, and the plaque marking the site, are both correctly noted.

One genuinely interesting nuance, not a factual error: what warmed Wesley's heart that night was a Lutheran text on justification by faith alone, not a distinctively Wesleyan-Arminian formulation. Aldersgate sits at a real theological hinge between Reformation sola fide and the Revival's newer, experiential emphasis on felt assurance. Scholars (notably Henry Rack, Reasonable Enthusiast, 1989) have long debated whether Aldersgate was Wesley's "conversion" in the born-again sense, or an assurance experience layered onto a faith he already held from his Georgia and pre-Georgia years, Wesley himself later somewhat softened his own retrospective judgment of the night's significance. A nuance that deepens the story, not one that contradicts it.

The “Aldersgate Flame” sculpture in London, marking the site where John Wesley felt his “heart strangely warmed” on the night of 24 May 1738 — now the site of a Barclays Bank branch.
The “Aldersgate Flame” sculpture in London, marking the site where John Wesley felt his “heart strangely warmed” on the night of 24 May 1738 — now the site of a Barclays Bank branch.Modern photograph, London. Public domain / CC, Wikimedia Commons.

Soon after, he went to Germany to visit von Zinzendorf, coming back with many hymns which he translated into English. But he came back wanting to preach the gospel. Preach he did, but the pulpits closed to him. Every time he preached in a Church of England building, they told him afterward: that's your first and last visit here. And so he finally reached a point where he couldn't preach at all. Then George Whitefield said to him: John, will you come and preach in the open air? John Wesley thought it the most dreadful thing in the world, an ordained clergyman not preaching from a pulpit. But then he remembered that Christ himself preached the Sermon on the Mount. And he said: if Christ could preach on a mountain, so can I. He went down to Kingswood, outside Bristol, to the miners, and preached. As he preached, he describes in his journal how the tears made "little white rivers down their black cheeks." John Wesley realized God was calling him to the same ministry as George Whitefield, who was now leaving for America. He took up the threads of Whitefield's preaching. That was April 1739, when he began open-air preaching.

He met opposition, dragged by the hair through the streets at times, as in the Wednesbury riots. But in 50 years he traveled a quarter of a million miles on horseback, with a Bible in his hand and a horse between his knees. He'd ride into a village and preach, and this is how he preached: he'd begin with the Ten Commandments, preaching the law, the law by which every man and woman will be judged, and he'd go on preaching the law for days, until people began to look unhappy, began to look troubled. Then, when he realized they were beginning to feel themselves sinners, he says in his diary: "I began to mix a bit of the love of God with the law of God." And a bit more. And a bit more. Until finally I was preaching the gospel of the love of God. Wesley discovered: you cannot preach the love of God until you preach the law. There's no point preaching a Savior to those who never felt their own misery. "What comfort can a Savior bring to those who never felt their woe?", that was written all over his ministry.

His three centers were London, Bristol, Newcastle, and all across that triangle you'll find places Wesley preached. His last sermon was preached at Leatherhead, Surrey. He preached on the principle, as he said, that "the world is my parish", and there may be some truth that he was helped in his travels by an unhappy marriage, keeping him on the move. That was the one real shadow over his life, though many are grateful for it, since it kept him traveling. He traveled and traveled, preached and preached, seven times a day was normal. He didn't only preach, he wrote and published books and pamphlets. He opened schools and orphanages, dispensaries. He was the first to use electric treatment for rheumatism, with a machine you can still see at his house on City Road today, and they've discovered it produces enough electricity to kill a man, but he used it for rheumatism. He was the most varied man, but obviously, he couldn't do it all himself.

The trouble was he had few clergy to work with him. So his mother came up with an idea: what about unordained preachers? Local lay preachers, who wouldn't travel everywhere as he did, but preach locally? One of the very first team of six was John Pawson, and his wife, Frances Pawson, was one of the leading Methodist women of that day. (I suppose our tribal association goes back to that.) With a team like that, John Wesley's reply to his mother was: give me a hundred such men, we're setting them on fire. And they did. When he died, there were 80,000 people meeting in fellowship as a result of his travels.

He didn't do what George Whitefield did, or rather, he did what Whitefield didn't do: when they were converted, he built them into fellowships, largely because the local churches wouldn't have them. He called these not "churches" but "societies," Methodist societies, giving them class leaders whose job it was to lead them spiritually. Then he had, we could say, so many societies in a district, and he called that district a "circuit", because a local preacher could go around it on horseback once a month and preach in every place. So he built horse circuits the local preachers traveled around. This kind of machinery is still used today, though I think it's ill-adapted to the 20th century, but for horseback, it was a very good idea, ideal organization for the setting he was in.

Bear in mind, all this time, John Wesley was a Church of England clergyman. What did they think about him? I'm afraid they thought very badly of him, especially when he ordained ministers for America. And though he never left the Church of England, it was quite obvious that as soon as he died, the Methodist societies would become Methodist churches. And this they did. The split came as soon as he died. But I think John Wesley was to blame, or at least was the man who did all that needed to be done to bring about the separation. I like the remark of someone who said: John Wesley was like a man rowing a boat. He kept his face towards the Church of England, but every pull of his oars took him further from it. That's precisely what he did. And so we're left at the end of the 18th century with a very large group of Methodists, in addition to the Anglicans, in addition to the Presbyterians and the Congregationalists, the Baptists and the Friends. And by century's end, Roman Catholics were allowed back in too. We're beginning to get the kind of picture we live in.

Kit's note

"80,000" is a reasonable round figure for the British societies alone, but understates the full global Wesleyan movement, more precise standard figures: 71,668 members in 294 societies in Great Britain at Wesley's death (2 March 1791, per the 1791 Conference Minutes), plus roughly 5,300 on overseas mission stations, plus separately about 43,000–60,000 members (figures vary by source) in the newly independent American Methodist Episcopal Church, a combined global total closer to 110,000–130,000. This is a stronger number for Pawson's own triumphant point, not a weaker one.

The "decisive" break can actually be dated more precisely than "as soon as he died", it happened in 1784, seven years before Wesley's death. With American Methodists left without valid clergy after the Revolution (the Church of England had no bishop in the new United States), Wesley, persuaded by Lord Peter King's and Bishop Stillingfleet's argument that in the early church "bishops and presbyters are essentially of one order", personally ordained preachers as deacons and elders and consecrated Thomas Coke as "superintendent" for America on 1–2 September 1784, without episcopal sanction. Charles Wesley's own reaction, "Ordination is separation", captures exactly how radical this was seen to be, even by his own brother. Formal separation of British Methodism from the Church of England came slightly later, via the 1795 Plan of Pacification (after Wesley's death), allowing Methodist preachers to administer the sacraments in their own right. So "as soon as he died" telescopes a process with a clear, dateable, decisive moment years earlier, a stronger, more dramatic story than Pawson's vaguer version. Worth adding: the 1784 ordinations were the single most "Free Church" act of Wesley's entire career, resting on precisely the presbyterian/congregational argument English Separatists, Baptists, and Puritans had made since the late 16th century against episcopal apostolic succession. Wesley spent his life resisting the label "Dissenter," yet when practical necessity forced his hand, he reached for exactly the ecclesiology the Radical Reformation had pioneered two centuries earlier.

John Wesley — “the world is my parish” — who rode roughly a quarter of a million miles over 50 years, preached upward of 40,000 sermons, and founded the Methodist movement.
John Wesley — “the world is my parish” — who rode roughly a quarter of a million miles over 50 years, preached upward of 40,000 sermons, and founded the Methodist movement.George Romney, 1789. Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.
Charles Wesley, author of nearly 9,000 hymns — more than the oft-repeated figure of 6,000 — including “Hark! The Herald Angels Sing” and “O for a Thousand Tongues to Sing.”
Charles Wesley, author of nearly 9,000 hymns — more than the oft-repeated figure of 6,000 — including “Hark! The Herald Angels Sing” and “O for a Thousand Tongues to Sing.”Unknown artist, 18th century. Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.

Charles Simeon, and five results of the Revival

Now let me finally look at one other great man of this century, right at the end of it. In 1799 (as Pawson tells it), there came a young, dissolute student to Cambridge, by the name Charles Simeon, hunting, shooting, fishing, a gay young man. When he came to Cambridge, he came face to face with his own life, went through a spiritual struggle, and out of it came to a sense of forgiveness. As he put it: "I laid my sins on the head of Jesus." He was shortly ordained to the ministry, and at the early age of 23, went as vicar to Holy Trinity Church, where it was my privilege to preach a month ago. In the vestry, you can see his teapot, his umbrella, pictures of him, Charles Simeon. He preached, and the church was thronged, with a tremendous influence on the students. It was from his congregation that that young man, Henry Martyn, went out to die in Persia as one of the greatest missionaries there's ever been. Charles Simeon must be put in the great list of heroes of this century.

Kit's note

The year should read 1779, not 1799, flagged unanimously across every independent research pass, and one of the two cleanest corrections in the whole dossier. Simeon (b. 1759) matriculated at King's College, Cambridge in 1779, had his conversion experience there that year, was ordained deacon in 1782, and became vicar (technically perpetual curate) of Holy Trinity Church on 9 November 1782, at age 23, the age-23 detail Pawson gets exactly right, which is precisely why "1799" reads as a spoken slip or mishearing of "1779" (an easy transposition) rather than a considered claim; note 1799 is also, confusingly, the correct founding year of the Church Missionary Society, which Pawson mentions later in this same lecture, plausibly the actual source of the crossed wire. Simeon served Holy Trinity 54 years until his death in 1836. Simeon is a significant hinge figure for evangelical Anglicanism, worth a fuller sentence than Pawson gives him: his massive Horae Homileticae (sermon outlines through the entire Bible) shaped generations of evangelical clergy, and his informal "Simeon Trust" patronage system placed evangelical vicars in livings across England, arguably as institutionally consequential as Wesley's circuit system, though far less colorful.

Now let me finally list some of the practical things that came out of this. I know exactly the kind of thing people say, and they still say it: what's the point of all this gospel preaching and hymn singing? What we need is people who get on and make the world a better place. All this hot gospeling and ranting doesn't do anybody any good. May I say the 18th century gives the lie to that, let me give you five results, very simply.

The first, one the world won't appreciate, but which Christians have appreciated ever since: the century burst into song. I've mentioned Isaac Watts, think of his famous hymns: "I'll Praise My Maker," "O God, Our Help in Ages Past," "When I Survey the Wondrous Cross," "Jesus Shall Reign Where'er the Sun." What about Philip Doddridge? "Hark the Glad Sound, the Saviour Comes," "O God of Bethel." What about Cowper? "God Moves in a Mysterious Way," "There Is a Fountain Filled with Blood." What about Newton? "How Sweet the Name of Jesus Sounds," "Glorious Things of Thee Are Spoken." And above all, Charles Wesley. Charles Wesley wrote 6,000 hymns, for every conceivable occasion. He'd write them on horseback, arrive at a house and say: don't speak to me, give me a pen and paper, quick. And out would come a hymn. We'll finish this service with one he wrote when he was one year old spiritually, on the anniversary of his conversion, when Peter Böhler, the Moravian German, said to Charles Wesley: if I had a thousand tongues, I'd want to sing the praise of Christ. And down it came: "Oh, for a Thousand Tongues to Sing My Great Redeemer's Praise." Among his thousands of others, remember "Hark, the Herald Angels Sing," "And Can It Be," "Love Divine, All Loves Excelling," "Jesus, Lover of My Soul," and "Rejoice, the Lord Is King."

Kit's note

"6,000 hymns" is a commonly repeated round figure within the plausible range, but modern scholarship puts the true total higher, Dr. Frank Baker's calculations (the standard critical-edition benchmark) put Charles Wesley's output closer to 8,900–9,000 hymns and religious poems: over 4,500 published in his lifetime plus roughly 3,000 more surviving in manuscript. Baker calculated Wesley averaged 10 lines of verse a day for 50 years. A stronger number worth using instead, and one that directly reinforces Pawson's own "wrote on horseback, wherever he was" anecdote.

In most hymn books, you'll find more hymns by Charles Wesley than any other writer, with Isaac Watts a close second. And the last hymn writer Pawson wants to mention, Montgomery, has one they'd sing at communion that day as one of the devotional hymns.

Second, Sunday schools. If I asked you who started Sunday schools, I wonder what you'd say. If you know anything, you'd probably say Robert Raikes in Gloucester. And I tell you, you're wrong. Sunday schools were started by Hannah Ball in High Wycombe, a Methodist lady who lies buried in Stokin Church graveyard. I took my father to see her grave a few weeks ago. Hannah Ball started Sunday schools in a disused furniture factory in High Wycombe, as the result of correspondence with John Wesley. And it was Hannah Ball who suggested to Robert Raikes: why don't you do the same? And the extraordinary thing is there's a statue of Robert Raikes in Gloucester that says "founder of Sunday schools." Well, he copied the idea from a woman. That's one for the fairer sex.

Kit's note

Ball founding a Sunday school in High Wycombe in 1769, over a decade before Raikes's well-publicized Gloucester initiative (usually dated 1780), and her genuine correspondence with John Wesley, are both solidly documented, a genuinely under-known point Pawson gets right where most textbooks still credit Raikes alone. But the specific causal claim, that Ball personally suggested the idea to Raikes, isn't well evidenced. Most standard accounts describe Raikes's Gloucester effort arising more independently, from his prison-reform interests and contact with a Mrs. Meredith, who was already running a local school. Also worth noting: an even earlier precedent, a Sunday school recorded at St Mary's Church, Nottingham, in 1751, predating both Ball and Raikes. Raikes's true historical role was less inventing Sunday schools than nationally publicizing them, his 1783 account in his own Gloucester Journal is what actually triggered the movement's nationwide spread, a good illustration of how historical "firsts" often get misattributed to whoever controlled the printing press.

Third, social righteousness. When people get converted, they put society right. Poor relief began. Dispensaries distributing free medicine began. Orphanages began. Schools began. Prison reform, John Howard's work in prison reform goes directly back to the 18th-century revival. And above all, the outstanding example: William Wilberforce and his fight against slavery. The last letter John Wesley ever wrote was to William Wilberforce, urging him to complete the fight. If you ever go to Kingston-upon-Hull, go to the William Wilberforce Museum, that too came out of the revival.

Fourth, the tremendous spread of good literature. The Religious Tract Society was a direct result. So was the British and Foreign Bible Society. So were the commentaries of the great Bible teacher Thomas Scott.

And the final one, with which I close: missionary societies began, and the influence of Britain on the world for good spread. There had been some earlier attempts at missionary work, but it was at the end of the 18th century, as a result of that rising temperature, that it really got going. It was in 1792, let me get the date right, that the Baptist Missionary Society was formed. It was a Baptist who really set it going, a cobbler from Northampton, constructing a globe of the world out of offcuts of leather, praying for that world, particularly for India. That Northampton cobbler, converted, encouraged to preach in the Baptist churches of Northamptonshire, met with a group of others one day in Kettering in 1792, took a collection, the famous 13 pounds, two shillings and sixpence, quite a lot in those days, and started the Baptist Missionary Society. A year later they were on their way to India, beginning the great missionary work that followed. That was 1792. Three years later, 1795, the Anglicans, Congregationalists, and Presbyterians, not to be outdone, got together and started the London Missionary Society (LMS), which sent out Morrison to China, Livingstone to Africa, and many other famous missionaries. In 1796, not to be left behind, the Methodists founded the General Methodist Missionary Society. In 1799, the Anglicans decided to have one of their own, and the Church Missionary Society was started. And it was just in this period that the British and Foreign Bible Society began, all at the end of the century. This was the direct result of the Evangelical Revival of the 18th century. Who says that hot gospeling has no results? Who says the world isn't changed because people get excited about the Lord?

Kit's note

The Kettering founding is confirmed almost exactly: the meeting was 2 October 1792, in the back parlor of the widow of deacon Beeby Wallis, Kettering (a plaque still marks the site), and the subscription totaled £13 2s 6d (roughly £1,180–£1,300 in modern purchasing power), regarded as the founding act of the modern Protestant missionary movement. This is Pawson at his most precise and can be retold with full confidence. The 1796 Methodist and 1799 Anglican (Church Missionary Society) founding dates are also accurate.

Worth naming: that cobbler was William Carey, whom Pawson never names despite Carey being arguably the single most consequential figure in this whole section, author of the pivotal 1792 pamphlet An Enquiry into the Obligations of Christians to Use Means for the Conversion of the Heathen, which supplied the theological argument for the Kettering meeting. Also worth a precision: Carey was a shoemaker in Moulton, a village near Northampton (not Northampton town itself), and by the time of the Kettering meeting he was pastoring the Baptist church in Leicester, having already left shoemaking for full-time ministry, so "cobbler from Northampton" is close popular shorthand rather than a strict error.

The London Missionary Society (1795) claim telescopes two much later events into the founding year. Robert Morrison did not sail for China until 1807, twelve years after the LMS's founding. David Livingstone (born 1813, eighteen years after the LMS was founded) did not depart for Africa until 1840/41. Both were genuinely LMS missionaries, but citing them as part of the society's immediate 1790s missionary wave alongside Carey's 1793 departure is anachronistic, Livingstone in particular belongs to a different generation entirely, mid-19th century.

“Who Says Gospel Preaching Has No Results?”

Five practical results of the Revival

1

Hymnody

Watts, Doddridge, Cowper, Newton, and nearly 9,000 hymns from Charles Wesley

2

Sunday schools

Hannah Ball preceded Robert Raikes by over a decade

3

Social righteousness

Prison reform (Howard), abolition (Wilberforce), poor relief, orphanages

4

Literature

The Religious Tract Society, the British & Foreign Bible Society

5

Missionary societies

Baptist (1792, Carey), LMS (1795), Methodist (1796), CMS (1799)

Isaac Watts, author of “O God, Our Help in Ages Past” and “When I Survey the Wondrous Cross” — one of the pioneers of the “century of hymn-singing.”
Isaac Watts, author of “O God, Our Help in Ages Past” and “When I Survey the Wondrous Cross” — one of the pioneers of the “century of hymn-singing.”Unknown artist, National Portrait Gallery. Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.
William Cowper, author of “God Moves in a Mysterious Way” and “There Is a Fountain Filled with Blood.”
William Cowper, author of “God Moves in a Mysterious Way” and “There Is a Fountain Filled with Blood.”Lemuel Francis Abbott, 1792. Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.
John Newton, the former slave-ship captain turned pastor, author of “Amazing Grace” and “How Sweet the Name of Jesus Sounds.”
John Newton, the former slave-ship captain turned pastor, author of “Amazing Grace” and “How Sweet the Name of Jesus Sounds.”Unknown artist, 18th century. Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.
Robert Raikes — credited as “founder of Sunday schools,” though Hannah Ball, a Methodist laywoman, had been doing it over a decade before him.
Robert Raikes — credited as “founder of Sunday schools,” though Hannah Ball, a Methodist laywoman, had been doing it over a decade before him.George Romney. Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.
William Wilberforce — recipient of the last letter John Wesley ever wrote, urging him to “go on” in the fight against slavery.
William Wilberforce — recipient of the last letter John Wesley ever wrote, urging him to “go on” in the fight against slavery.Unknown artist, 18th–19th century. Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.
William Carey — the Northamptonshire shoemaker who became the “father of the modern missionary movement,” founding the Baptist Missionary Society in 1792.
William Carey — the Northamptonshire shoemaker who became the “father of the modern missionary movement,” founding the Baptist Missionary Society in 1792.Unknown artist, 19th century. Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.
Charles Simeon, vicar of Holy Trinity Church, Cambridge for 54 years — whose theological influence spread through his “Horae Homileticae” and a network placing evangelical clergy across England.
Charles Simeon, vicar of Holy Trinity Church, Cambridge for 54 years — whose theological influence spread through his “Horae Homileticae” and a network placing evangelical clergy across England.Unknown artist, 19th century. Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.
Henry Martyn, who went out from Simeon's congregation as a missionary to Persia and died there — one of the most revered missionaries in history.
Henry Martyn, who went out from Simeon's congregation as a missionary to Persia and died there — one of the most revered missionaries in history.Unknown artist, early 19th century. Public domain, Wikimedia Commons.

Closing: "do it again, Lord"

The one lesson I want to draw out of the whole century, for tonight, is this: what a man believes will affect his behavior. Cold intellectualism, bad morals; hot gospel, and all this follows. Somebody has said that the early Methodists were like a cluster of chaste snowdrops growing on a foul rubbish heap. If you want to understand the Methodist emphasis on not drinking or gambling, you must understand the tradition goes back to the reality of the 18th century, they had to insist on it to get a man anywhere near the Lord. But they fought for it, and they cleaned England up.

A historian in France has said that if you want to understand why the French Revolution, and the enthronement of reason, and the anarchy that followed, did not spread to England, you must study the life of the Reverend John Wesley. That's an amazing tribute. God had his answer. Where man's cold reason, saying you've got to prove everything before you believe it, was killing religion dead, and when you kill religion, you kill morals, God raised up men who pointed to revelation, who pointed to a God giving us knowledge that science can neither prove nor disprove, and preached a gospel of supernatural miracle and a living God who could step in and change a life, and change a society. That neither nature nor human nature was governed by blind laws, but that both were governed by God, and that God could turn both to his eternal purposes.

Kit's note

The "cluster of chaste snowdrops on a foul rubbish heap" comparison could not be verified in any searchable source, despite multiple independent checks (against Isaac Taylor's Wesley and Methodism, Southey's Life of Wesley, and general Methodist-history quote collections). It has the flavor of 19th-century Methodist hagiographic prose, but should be treated as unverified, not a sourced quotation. And the "unnamed French historian" line is a real and important thesis, but shouldn't be presented as a settled, sourced direct quotation. This is a popularized version of the well-known Halévy thesis, proposed by French historian Élie Halévy (1870–1937) in his 1906 essay "La naissance du méthodisme en Angleterre," developed further in A History of the English People in the Nineteenth Century, arguing that Methodism's diffusion of personal discipline, sobriety, and individual (rather than political) transformation through the working and middle classes helped England avoid the revolutionary upheaval that convulsed France after 1789. The specific sentence Pawson quotes ("you must study the life of the Reverend John Wesley") couldn't be verified as Halévy's own verbatim wording in any source checked, it reads as a preacher's condensation of the broader thesis.

More importantly: this thesis is a genuinely live historiographical debate, not settled fact. The major counter-voice is E. P. Thompson, in The Making of the English Working Class (1963), chapter "The Chiliasm of Despair," arguing that Methodism functioned at least as much as social control and psychological compensation for political defeat among workers as it did a liberating or stabilizing civic force. Other historians note England's different social structure, aristocracy, and constitutional monarchy already made a French-style revolution politically and economically less likely, independent of Methodism's influence. A well-balanced piece should present Pawson's "amazing tribute" as a genuinely live historiographical debate, not settled history.

That's the message I wanted to bring you tonight. Great men of God were warmed up again, and brought the gospel of Jesus Christ to this land. And we still benefit from the effects of that revival, 200 years and more later.

Closing prayer. O God our Father, there is one prayer in all our hearts. Do it again, Lord. You are still the same God. Your arm is not shortened that you are not able to save today. We pray that in the decline of our society, with things on every hand that disturb us, with the revival even of that immoral literature of the 18th century again on the screen, with all this, Lord, do it again. Raise up men who will be fearless to preach Christ. Raise up such an army of evangelists, and men and women on fire for the Lord, that this country again may resound to the ring of the gospel, and we may see again an influence go out from this nation for good, in the whole of the rest of the world. O God, you have blessed us greatly in the past, but we cannot live in the past. We must live now, and we pray that in our day and generation we too may discover the forgiveness of sins in Christ Jesus, and then go out to tell others of the love that can forgive them. Amen.


Three centuries, three lectures, one continuous story: every time the Church was captured by the state, by German princes, by the Zurich council, by the English Parliament, the result was always war, prison, or a spiritual life gone cold. And every time, there were those who refused to let it happen: Anabaptists drowned for believing in voluntary baptism; Helwys dying in Newgate prison for writing the king to demand liberty of conscience for "heretics, Turks, and Jews"; Bunyan writing Pilgrim's Progress in a cell; Wesley riding a quarter of a million miles to carry the gospel to places the established pulpits had shut against him. By the close of the 18th century, the price of those three centuries had purchased what Scripture calls liberty of conscience, a freedom whose price, as Pawson repeats throughout, "is eternal vigilance," and one that can be lost as easily as it was once lost.

Part 5 of this series, God willing, will carry the story into the 19th century: from the revival that spread after Wesley and Whitefield, through the social and theological upheavals that would shape the Church heading into the 20th century.

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