교회사 — 4부: 양심의 자유를 되찾기 위한 300년(1517~1800)
메모: 이 글은 데이비드 포슨(David Pawson)의 교회사 시리즈에 속한 세 편의 별도 강의를 한데 엮은 것입니다. 16세기(54.9분, 「개혁자들, 로마 진영, 급진파」), 17세기(47.7분, 예배의 자유를 위한 영국의 투쟁), 18세기(54.9분, 복음주의 부흥)를 다룹니다. 세 강의를 하나의 에세이로 묶은 것…
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병렬
메모: 이 글은 데이비드 포슨(David Pawson)의 교회사 시리즈에 속한 세 편의 별도 강의를 한데 엮은 것입니다. 16세기(54.9분, 「개혁자들, 로마 진영, 급진파」), 17세기(47.7분, 예배의 자유를 위한 영국의 투쟁), 18세기(54.9분, 복음주의 부흥)를 다룹니다. 세 강의를 하나의 에세이로 묶은 것은 국가가 강요한 종교의 대가와 양심의 자유로 돌아가는 길고 험난한 여정이라는 하나의 끊기지 않는 이야기를 들려주기 때문입니다. 나는 Pawson의 주장을 추측하거나 꾸미지 않았습니다. 자료를 찾아보거나 출처와 대조하거나 세부 사항을 바로잡은 곳마다 그 내용을 호박색 여백 메모로 본문에 엮었습니다. 이번 사실 확인이 앞선 세 부분보다 훨씬 방대한 것은, 이 시대의 역사에 시리즈 어느 부분보다 많은 이름·날짜·숫자가 등장하고, 설교단의 전설이 거듭 전해지며 살이 붙기 쉬운 대목이기 때문입니다.
비텐베르크에서 웨슬리 부부의 응접실까지
3부는 마틴 루터가 제국과 교회 앞에 서서 "내가 여기 서 있으니 다른 일은 할 수 없습니다"라고 선언하는 장면으로 끝났습니다. 그러나 선언만으로 개혁이 완성되는 것은 아닙니다. Pawson은 간단해 보이는 질문으로 다음 강의를 시작합니다. 종교개혁과 혁명의 차이는 무엇입니까?
답은 두 가지 다른 질문에 달려 있습니다. 얼마나 많이 바뀌었는가, 그리고 누가 바꾸었는가입니다. 16세기에 루터의 종교개혁은 퍼져 나가면서 점차 혁명이 되었습니다. 점점 더 많은 것이 바뀌었고, 점점 더 많은 사람이 점점 더 많은 곳에서 자기 방식대로 바꾸려 했기 때문입니다.
이 글의 세 세기는 하나의 연속된 이야기를 들려줍니다. 교회는 계속 국가에 의해 ‘포획’되었습니다. 왕과 의회와 시의회는 세속 권력으로 한 영토 전체에 하나의 종교를 강요했고, 그 대가는 언제나 전쟁과 감옥, 혹은 식어 버린 영적 삶이었습니다. 이 세기는 국가가 자신의 믿음을 결정하도록 내버려 두지 않고 그 대가를 혹독하게 치른 사람들의 이야기이기도 합니다.
전체 강연의 틀
16세기의 세 가지 R
팝슨은 종교개혁과 혁명의 차이가 무엇인지 묻는 것으로 시작한다. 답은 또 다른 두 질문에 있다. 얼마나 많이 바뀌었으며, 누가 그것을 바꾸었는가? 루터의 종교개혁은 퍼져 가면서 혁명이 되었다. 점점 더 많은 것이 바뀌었고 점점 더 많은 사람이 그 변화를 받아들였기 때문이다.
개혁자들
루터, 츠빙글리, 칼빈, 녹스, 크랜머
안에서 개혁했지만 한 영토 전체에 변화를 강제할 군주와 시의회에 의존했다. 땅을 다스리는 사람이 그곳의 종교를 결정했다.
로마 교회
로욜라, 트리엔트 공의회, 종교재판
가만히 있지 않았다. 예수회, 교리를 다시 확인한 공의회, 부활한 종교재판이라는 세 갈래가 60년 뒤 개신교의 물결을 멈추었다.
급진파
그레벨, 만츠, 메노 시몬스, 후터
가장 급진적인 질문은 누가 개혁해야 하는가였다. 답은 국가가 아니다. 국가와 분리된 자발적 교회였으며, 로마와 개혁자들에게 똑같이 박해받았다.
제1부: 16세기: 개혁자들, 로마 진영, 급진파
Pawson은 강의를 ‘세 가지 R’이라는 세 그룹으로 나눕니다. 개혁자들, 로마 진영(가톨릭교회의 반응), 급진파(Pawson 자신의 교회인 Gold Hill이 실제로 그 계보에서 나왔습니다)입니다. 그는 독일과 스위스, 그리고 영국의 개혁자들을 살펴봅니다.
독일: 마르틴 루터, 그리고 도중에 멈춘 남자
누가 독일을 변화시켰을까요? 물론 마틴 루터입니다. 얼마나 많이 바꾸었을까요? Pawson의 대답은 이렇습니다. 처음 4~5년 동안에는 엄청난 변화가 있었습니다. 루터는 교황과 주교, 면죄부와 연옥을 없애고 그 밖의 많은 것을 폐지했으며, 성례를 일곱 개에서 두 개로 줄였습니다.
그러다가 위기가 닥쳤습니다. 루터는 바르트부르크성에 숨어야 했습니다. 그가 돌아왔을 때, 몇몇 친구가 자신이 의도한 것보다 훨씬 더 멀리, 훨씬 더 빠르게 변화를 밀어붙이고 있는 것을 보고 경악했습니다. 그는 자신의 강단에 서서 물었습니다. “어떻게 감히 이런 일을 합니까?” 그리고 그때부터 루터는 변화를 추진하는 일을 사실상 멈추었습니다. 그 뒤로는 변화가 거의 일어나지 않았습니다.
그 결과 루터는 로마가 지키던 것 가운데 많은 부분을 그대로 남겨 두었습니다. 성경에는 분명히 나오지 않는 촛불을 제단 위에 두었고, 십자가상도 남겼습니다. 루터교회에 가면 십자가상을 보게 될 텐데, 아마 놀라울 것입니다. 성화와 그림도 남겼습니다. 무엇보다 주의 만찬과 세례에 관한 전통적 관행을 지켰습니다. 그는 어떤 의미에서 빵과 포도주가 실제로 그리스도의 몸과 피였다고 여전히 믿었고, 그 생각에서 완전히 벗어나지 못했습니다. 유아세례도 유지했습니다. 누군가 세례에는 믿음이 필요하지 않느냐고 묻자 그는 이렇게 대답했습니다. “그 아기에게 믿음이 없다고 누가 말할 수 있겠습니까?”
누가 이 변화를 실행했을까요? 다소 놀라운 대답은 제후들입니다. 다시 말해, 이것은 국가가 주도한 변화였습니다. 루터교는 로마 가톨릭교와 마찬가지로 국가가 세운 종교였습니다. 처음부터 루터는 제후와 공작, 작센 선제후, 특히 프리드리히라는 인물에게 의지해 ‘위에서부터’ 개혁했습니다. 루터는 그 땅을 다스리는 사람이 교회도 다스린다고 여겼습니다.
그 결과 슈파이어의 제국 의회에서 각 영토가 그 제후의 종교를 받아들이기로 결정되었습니다. 제후가 가톨릭 신자라면 그곳에 사는 사람도 가톨릭 신자였고, 제후가 루터교도라면 주민도 루터교도였습니다. 이에 격렬하게 반대한 사람들이 있었고, 바로 그 ‘항의’에서 프로테스탄트라는 말이 생겨났습니다.
이러한 교회와 국가의 결합이 낳은 결과는 이랬습니다. 17세기 초 가톨릭 국가들이 연합해, 역시 연합한 개신교 국가들과 전쟁을 벌였습니다. 바로 유명한 30년 전쟁입니다. 이 실수가 낳는 최종 결과는 이렇습니다. 이쪽 국가는 모두가 이 종교를 믿어야 한다고 말하고 저쪽 국가는 모두가 저 종교를 믿어야 한다고 말하면, 머지않아 종교전쟁이 일어납니다. 이 패턴은 독일에서 덴마크와 스웨덴, 노르웨이로 퍼졌고, 이 나라들은 모두 루터교를 국교로 삼아 모든 시민에게 강요했습니다.
Kit의 주석
루터가 성사의 수를 일곱에서 둘로 줄였다는 것은 맞습니다. 하지만 일곱 성사는 루터가 벗어나려 했던 로마만의 «발명품»이 아니었습니다. 그것은 종교개혁 이전의 온 교회가 동방과 서방을 막론하고 함께 받아들이던 공통된 이해 였습니다. 그 일곱은 세례, 견진, 성찬, 고해, 혼인, 서품, 병자성사입니다. 루터가 성사를 둘만 인정한 것은 «로마»뿐 아니라 고대 교회 전체와의 단절이었습니다.
주의 만찬을 둘러싼 논쟁은 서방 교회 안에서만 벌어진 것이 아니었습니다. 대략 1573년에서 1581년 사이, 튀빙겐의 루터교 신학자들은 그리스어로 번역한 아우크스부르크 신앙고백서를 공통점을 찾고자 콘스탄티노폴리스의 예레미야스 2세 총대주교에게 보냈습니다. 그는 세 통의 신중한 신학 서신으로 답했고, 몇 가지 점에는 동의했지만 은혜와 성례, 성경을 해석하는 교부들의 권위에 관한 루터의 핵심 입장은 거부했습니다. 그리고 이렇게 서신을 맺었습니다. “여러분은 여러분의 길을 가십시오. 교리에 관해서는 더 이상 편지를 보내지 말고, 우정을 위한 편지만 보내십시오.” 종교개혁은 실제로 동방에까지 이르렀지만, 정교회는 자신의 기준에 따라 그것을 받아들이지 않았습니다.


스위스 : 전쟁터에서 죽은 츠빙글리와 하룻밤을 묵고 20년을 지내게 된 칼빈
루터는 스위스에서 종교개혁을 시작하지도, 직접 돕지도 않았습니다. 스위스의 개혁은 독자적으로 시작되었습니다. 그 중심에는 독일어권 스위스인과 프랑스인, 두 사람이 있었습니다.
훌드라이히 츠빙글리는 독일어권 스위스의 작은 마을에서 사역하던 평범한 가톨릭 본당 신부였습니다. 그는 헬라어 신약성경을 읽으며 개신교 신앙으로 나아갔고, 사실 마르틴 루터에게 그런 일이 일어나기 몇 년 전이었습니다. 츠빙글리는 취리히 대성당(그로스뮌스터)의 설교자로 초청받아 성경에서 발견한 새로운 진리를 전했고, 그 가르침은 취리히 시 전체로 퍼져 나갔습니다.
그가 가르친 것 가운데 하나는 교황이 스위스 용병으로 이루어진 군대를 두는 일이 잘못되었다는 것이었습니다. (흥미롭게도 오늘날 바티칸을 방문하면 여전히 스위스 근위대가 그곳을 지키는 모습을 볼 수 있습니다. 츠빙글리가 반대했던 바로 그 관행입니다.) 그는 교황에 대한 충성을 버리고 결혼했으며, 많은 사제도 그를 따랐습니다.
결국 츠빙글리는 취리히 시의회를 설득했고, 시 전체가 개신교를 받아들였습니다. 다시 한 번 도시 전체를 종교적으로 통일하려는 위험한 실수였지만, 결정은 실행되었습니다. 취리히와 그 영향권의 계곡들은 공식적으로 개신교가 되었지만 산과 숲에 사는 사람들이 모두 이를 따르지는 않았습니다. 곧 계곡 주민들과 산악 지역 주민들이 충돌했고, 취리히 지역에서는 2년에 걸친 전쟁이 벌어졌습니다. 그 전쟁에서 츠빙글리 자신도 카펠이라는 작은 곳에서 전사했습니다.
츠빙글리는 죽기 전에 성만찬을 두고 루터와 큰 논쟁을 벌였습니다. 루터는 빵이 그리스도의 몸이고 포도주가 그리스도의 피라고 말했지만, 츠빙글리는 빵과 포도주는 그분의 몸과 피를 가리키는 상징일 뿐이라고 보았습니다. Pawson은 아마도 이것이 독일인과 스위스인이 종교개혁에서 끝내 함께하지 못한 이유 가운데 하나였을 것이라고 관찰합니다.
이야기는 프랑스로 옮겨갑니다. 존 칼빈은 피카르디에서 변호사의 아들로 태어났고, 아버지의 뜻에 따라 법학을 공부했습니다. 파리·오를레앙·부르주에서 공부하며 논리적인 사고방식을 익혔습니다. 그는 죽는 날까지 말과 사고의 명료함, 사람을 무너뜨릴 듯한 논증에서는 변호사였고, 그의 논증이 수많은 사람을 “칼빈주의자”로 설득했습니다.
칼빈은 파리에서 그리스어 신약성경을 공부하며 회심했습니다(약 1532~34년). 몇 달 뒤에는 자신의 기독교적 견해 때문에 파리에 머물 수 없게 되었고, 석방된 뒤에는 난민으로 이곳저곳을 떠돌며 도망 다녔습니다.
그는 스위스의 도시 바젤에 이르러 26세의 나이에 자신의 기독교 신앙을 기록하기로 결심했습니다. 그 책은 《기독교 강요》였고, 오늘날에도 세계 개신교 신앙을 설명하는 가장 위대한 저술 가운데 하나로 읽히고 있습니다.
칼빈은 일요일 아침에는 교회를 옹호하고 오후에는 볼링을 했다는 식의 “대륙의 일요일”을 만들었다는 평가를 받습니다(혹은 비난을 받습니다). 그러나 더 깊은 핵심은 하나님이 보좌에 계신다는 그의 확신이었습니다. 그는 하나님의 주권과, 하나님의 뜻이 국가와 인류 역사를 결정하는 최종적 요인이라는 사실을 믿었습니다. 훗날 그와 같은 견해를 가진 사람들이 칼빈주의자라고 불린 것은 하나님의 주권과 예정에 대한 그의 논리적 강조가 두드러졌기 때문입니다. 하지만 그 믿음은 칼빈만의 것이 아니었습니다. 루터와 츠빙글리를 비롯한 모든 개혁자도 하나님이 모든 것과 모든 사람을 다스리신다고 믿었습니다.
칼빈은 여전히 난민으로 이곳저곳을 떠돌고 있었습니다. 어느 날 프랑스로 돌아가려던 길에 작은 전쟁이 벌어진 것을 보고 우회했고, 저녁까지 목적지에 이르지 못해 그가 있는 곳에서 하룻밤을 묵었는데, 그곳이 제네바였습니다. 하룻밤만 머물 생각이었지만, 그는 그곳에 20년 동안 머물렀고 제네바는 전 세계 장로교의 중심지가 되었습니다.
그 책의 젊은 저자인 칼빈이 제네바에 있다는 소문이 퍼지자, 지역 교회의 목회자 기욤 파렐이 급히 여관으로 찾아왔습니다. “칼빈, 여기에 머물러 주십시오. 의회는 제네바를 개신교 도시로 만들기로 결정했지만, 상황은 나아지지 않았습니다. 사람들은 여전히 술과 도박에 빠져 있습니다. 우리에게는 당신 같은 사람이 필요합니다.” 칼빈은 그의 요청을 받아들였습니다.
칼빈은 매우 엄격했습니다. 그는 사람들을 교회 앞에서 심문하고, 여러 잘못을 저지른 사람을 행정관에게 넘겼습니다. 당시 제네바의 인구는 고작 13,000명 정도였고, 그는 엄격한 규율로 도시를 정비했습니다. 그러나 3년 뒤에는 목숨을 걸고 스트라스부르로 도망쳐야 했습니다. 칼빈이 떠나자 도시는 다시 혼란에 빠졌고, 제네바의 대표자들은 그에게 돌아와 달라고 요청했습니다. 그는 돌아와 이후 20년 동안 개혁을 더 진전시켰습니다.
그는 돌아와 개혁을 훨씬 더 진전시켰습니다. 십자가도, 촛불도, 심지어 오르간도 두지 않았고 사람들은 함께 노래해야 했습니다. 칼빈은 마르틴 루터보다 더 많은 변화를 가져왔고, 평신도·목사·장로가 함께 교회를 다스리며 지역 조직이 더 넓은 지역을 감독하는 대표 모임으로 연결되는 장로교 교회 행정 체제를 세웠습니다.
제네바는 박해를 피해 온 개신교인들의 피난처가 되었습니다. 6,000명 이상이 그곳에 와서 살았고, 자연스럽게 칼빈의 사상을 받아들였습니다. 고향으로 돌아가는 것이 안전해지자 그들은 칼빈의 신앙과 교회 운영 방식을 함께 전했습니다.
그러나 칼빈도 교회와 국가를 융합하는 같은 실수를 반대 방향으로 저질렀다는 점을 덧붙여야 합니다. 그는 국가가 교회를 다스려야 한다고 말하지는 않았지만, 교회가 국가를 다스려야 한다고 보았습니다. 교인이 나쁜 행동을 하면 시 행정관이 그를 처리해야 한다고 기대했습니다. 다시 한 번 교회와 국가의 경계가 흐려졌습니다. 제네바에서는 전쟁으로 이어지지 않았지만, 다른 곳에서는 전쟁으로 이어졌습니다.
제네바에서 그 영향력이 프랑스에까지 이르렀습니다.




프랑스의 위그노와 스코틀랜드의 존 녹스
프랑스의 개신교도들은 루터보다 칼빈에 더 가까운 입장을 취했고, 위그노라고 불리게 되었습니다. 칼빈이 활동을 시작했던 프랑스 왕의 통치가 끝날 무렵에는 이미 프랑스에 2만 명의 위그노가 있었습니다. 그 수는 계속 늘어났지만, 끔찍한 성 바르톨로메오 축일인 1572년 8월 24일을 맞았습니다. Pawson은 이날 프랑스 전역에서 약 2만 2천 명의 위그노가 학살되었고, 파리에서만 2천 명이 죽었다고 말합니다. 이 수치는 확정값이 아니라 당시의 추정치로 읽어야 합니다. 위그노들은 영국과 네덜란드로 피신했습니다. 프랑스식 성을 가진 가족을 만난다면 그 조상이 이 위그노의 피난길을 따라 건너왔을 가능성이 큽니다. 어쩌면 오늘 밤 이 교회에도 성 바르톨로메오 축일의 학살을 피해 온 사람들의 후손이 있을지 모릅니다.
그러나 제네바의 영향을 가장 크게 받은 나라는 멋진 옛 스코틀랜드였습니다. 스코틀랜드의 전체 역사를 다룰 수는 없어 스코틀랜드 사람들에게 미안하지만, 위대한 스코틀랜드인 네 명만 언급하겠습니다.
패트릭 해밀턴은 스코틀랜드에서 종교개혁을 시작한 사람이었지만 1528년 화형당했습니다. 그의 사역은 스위스를 다녀온 조지 위샤트가 이어받았지만, 그 역시 비참한 최후를 맞았습니다. 그러나 그 일을 실제로 완성한 사람은 존 녹스였습니다.
그는 다채로운 인물이었습니다. 글래스고대학교 학생이었고, 이후 스코틀랜드 군대가 주둔한 세인트앤드루스성의 군목이 되었습니다. 프랑스군이 성을 점령한 뒤 녹스를 갤리선 노예로 팔았고, 그는 그곳에서 노를 저었습니다. 영국인들이 그를 구출했고, 그는 영국으로 왔다가 메리 여왕과 문제를 일으킨 뒤 대륙, 제네바와 칼빈에게로 도망쳤습니다. 녹스는 이런 사상을 받아들일 준비가 되어 있었고, 스코틀랜드로 돌아와 결심했습니다. “내가 스코틀랜드를 장로교 국가로 만들겠다.” 그는 한때 이렇게 기도했다고 전해집니다. “주님, 스코틀랜드를 주시든지, 아니면 제가 죽게 하소서.”
1560년 스코틀랜드 의회는 개신교를 채택하기로 표결했고, 같은 해 첫 총회를 열었습니다. 그러나 1561년, 아름답고 교활한 스코틀랜드 여왕 메리가 돌아와 아름다움과 계략으로 개신교 귀족 대부분을 자기편으로 끌어들였습니다. 그리하여 스코틀랜드 여왕 메리와 존 녹스가 서로 맞섰습니다. 매우 극적인 이야기이니 역사에 관심이 있다면 읽어 보십시오. 결국 내전 뒤 메리 여왕은 체포되어 어린 아들 제임스에게 양위했고, 훗날 잉글랜드의 엘리자베스 세에게 반역죄로 처형되었습니다. 녹스의 가르침은 뿌리를 내렸고, 스코틀랜드는 그 뒤로 줄곧 장로교 국가로 남았습니다. 스코틀랜드 교회는 제네바 교회를 닮았고, 영국 교회는 루터교회에 더 가깝습니다. 스코틀랜드 교회는 존 녹스에게 모든 것을 빚지고 있습니다.
Knox가 죽자 리더십은 제가 언급하고 싶은 마지막 위대한 스코틀랜드 사람에게 넘어갔습니다. 앤드류 멜빌, 그는 제임스 왕에게 이렇게 말했습니다. "폐하, 스코틀랜드에는 두 왕과 두 왕국이 있습니다. 제임스 왕이 있는데 나는 그에게 충성스러운 신민이고, 교회의 왕이신 주 예수 그리스도가 계시고 야고보도 그 신민입니다."



영국: "전형적인 영국의 혼란", 헨리 8세부터 엘리자베스 1세까지
이제 우리나라로 돌아와 보겠습니다. 그동안 영국에서는 무슨 일이 일어났을까요? Pawson은 분명하게 말합니다. 영국의 종교개혁은 전형적인 영국식 혼란이었습니다. 전형적인 타협이기도 했습니다. 우리는 원칙대로 밀고 나가기보다 “그 정도면 되겠지” 하며 얼버무리고, 매우 실용적으로 *효과가 있는가?*를 묻습니다. 효과가 있으면 옳다고 여깁니다. 이런 태도는 매우 영국적이며, 종교개혁도 그것을 고스란히 보여 줍니다.
물론 시작은 다음과 같았습니다. 헨리 8세 그리고 그는 다른 여자와 결혼하고 싶어합니다. 그러나 이것은 심하게 오해되었습니다. 더 완전한 사실을 말씀드리겠습니다. 헨리 8세는 다른 사람들로부터 아라곤의 캐서린과 결혼하도록 압력을 받았는데, 그것은 불법 결혼이었습니다. 왜냐하면 그녀는 형의 미망인이었기 때문에 그는 애초에 그녀와 결혼해서는 안 되었기 때문입니다. 그러나 불법 결혼을 특별 허가한 교황을 비롯한 여러 방면의 압력에 그는 정치적인 이유로 결혼을 강요당했다. 나중에 악명 높은 "블러디 메리"가 된 어린 소녀 메리를 제외하고 그녀가 낳은 모든 아이는 죽었습니다. 그에게는 튜더 가문을 이어갈 아들이 없었고, 자신이 죽으면 남성 상속자가 없으면 내전이 뒤따를 것임을 알고 있었습니다. 당시 영국의 대부분의 사람들은 그것을 결혼에 대한 하나님의 심판의 표시로 받아들였습니다.
그런 다음 그는 자신이 진정으로 사랑했던 여성이자 훌륭한 여왕이자 합법적인 아내가 될 수 있었던 앤 불린을 만났습니다. (나는 헨리 8세를 정당화하는 것이 아니라 전체 사실을 알려드리는 것입니다.) 그는 교황에게 최초의 불법 결혼을 무효화해 달라고 신청했지만 그때쯤에는 정치가 바뀌었고 정치적인 이유로 교황은 거절했습니다. 그래서 헨리 8세는 이렇게 말했습니다. 좋습니다. 이제부터 나는 교황에게 복종하지 않습니다. 영국이 영국 해협을 통해 대륙과 분리된 것처럼 헨리는 영국 교회를 교황으로부터 단계적으로 분리했습니다.
전체 이야기에서 가장 아이러니한 부분은 젊은 시절 헨리 8세는 일종의 아마추어 신학자였으며 마틴 루터에 반대하는 책을 썼고 교황이 너무 기뻐서 그에게 제목을 주었다는 것입니다. "신앙의 수호자", 우리의 여왕이 오늘날에도 여전히 가지고 있는 칭호는 주머니에 있는 동전에 찍혀 있습니다. 그는 마틴 루터를 공격하여 상을 받았습니다. 혹시 알고 계셨나요? 영국의 종교개혁은 얼마나 혼란스러운가.
헨리는 자신이 친구를 캔터베리 대주교로 임명했기 때문에 앤 불린과 결혼할 수 있었습니다. 그 친구가 바로 토머스 크랜머였습니다. 크랜머는 헨리의 첫 결혼이 처음부터 불법이었다고 확신했으므로 이를 무효화할 수 있다고 말했고, 헨리는 앤 불린과 결혼했으며 크랜머가 비밀리에 그 결혼식을 주례했습니다. 로마와 결별해 교회의 수장이 된 헨리는 돈도 부족했습니다. 그래서 영국의 부유한 수도원을 몰수하고 그 토지를 개인들에게 팔았으며, 이는 영국 중산층이 처음 형성되는 계기가 되어 이후 사회생활에 오래 영향을 미쳤습니다.
그러나 요점은 이렇습니다. 헨리 8세는 영국이 개신교로 가는 것을 결코 원하지 않았습니다. 그는 교황에 대한 충성심이 너무 강했지만 대신 자신이 교황이었던 수도원을 제외하고 모든 것이 이전과 같이 계속되기를 원했습니다. 그것은 기본적으로 그가 원했던 것입니다. 그러나 그는 몇 가지 요인 없이 계산했습니다.
헨리는 또한 윌리엄 틴들이 이 책을 열정적으로 영어로 번역하고 있다는 사실을 계산에 넣지 못했습니다. 틴들은 영국 전역에서 추적당하다 대륙으로 도망쳐야 했고, 결국 화형당했습니다. 그러나 틴들은 이후 모든 영어 성경 개정판의 토대가 된 영어 성경을 우리에게 남겼습니다. 헨리의 통치 기간에는 그 성경이 영국의 모든 교회에 한 권씩 비치되어, 사람들이 처음으로 교회에 가서 그것을 읽을 수 있었습니다. 헨리는 그 사실을 계산에 넣지 못했던 것입니다. 보이지 않습니까? 사람들을 자유롭게 하는 것은 언제나 이 책이며, 이 책을 읽을 기회가 가장 놀라운 일을 만들어 냅니다.
헨리는 또한 수도원 해산을 뒤에서 설계한 토머스 크롬웰 같은 사람들도 계산에 넣지 못했습니다. 그는 다음 세기의 올리버 크롬웰과 혼동해서는 안 됩니다. 토머스 크롬웰은 크랜머처럼 속으로는 개신교 사상에 공감했고, 교황이 여전히 영국에서 ‘성 베드로의 헌금’과 다른 연금(annates)을 거두는 데 대한 광범위한 불만을 이용했습니다. 그러나 헨리는 변화의 속도를 두려워했고, 안타깝게도 통치 말기에는 가톨릭 신자와 개혁자 모두를 처형했습니다. 그가 죽었을 때 영국은 소용돌이 속에 있었지만 왕위는 열 살 소년에게 넘어갔습니다. 그 소년은 이미 진지한 그리스도인이었고 크랜머의 깊은 영향을 받아 영국의 변화가 계속되기를 바랐습니다.
전형적인 영국식 혼란
튜더 왕조의 진자: 네 군주, 네 번의 급변
헨리 8세
1509–1547
로마와 결별했지만 옛 교리를 유지했다
에드워드 6세
1547–1553
영국을 개신교화했다: 《공도서》
메리 1세
1553–1558
로마로 돌아가다, 순교자 약 300명
엘리자베스 1세
1558–1603
“중간 길” — 엘리자베스 시대의 종교 정착




에드워드 6세. 이 소년 왕의 짧은 통치 기간 동안 몇 가지 일이 일어났습니다. 성직자들의 결혼이 허용되었습니다. 영국 교회의 주의 만찬은 개신교적인 성격을 띠었고 제단은 식탁이라고 불렸습니다. 그리고 더 중요한 것은 처음으로 라틴어 대신 영어로 예배를 드렸으며, 공동 기도서, 라틴어를 미리 아는 신부뿐만 아니라 일반 사람들도 기도할 수 있도록 모든 사람이 사용할 수 있는 책입니다. 두 번째 개정 후에는 공동 기도서가 되었으며, 이는 거의 변하지 않았으며 오늘날에도 여전히 영국 교회 예배에서 사용되고 있습니다. 우리는 그 소년 왕, 아니 오히려 그의 통치에 빚을 지고 있습니다.
이 소년 왕의 통치 아래 한 가지 규칙이 도입되었습니다. 모든 사제는 적어도 1년에 네 번 설교해야 했습니다. 사람들이 1년에 네 번 설교하도록 규칙까지 만들어야 했던 교회의 상태를 상상할 수 있습니까? 이것은 당시 영국 교회의 상태를 보여 주는 작은 창입니다. 크랜머 아래에서는 신앙 조항도 최대 42개까지 초안이 작성되었다가 훗날 39개로 줄었습니다. 에드워드 세의 통치 기간에는 개신교 난민들도 영국으로 돌아왔고, 내가 다녔던 케임브리지에는 스트라스부르 출신의 유명한 신학 교수 마르틴 부서가 와서 학생들에게 그리스도의 복음에 대한 개신교적 이해를 가르쳤습니다.
그러다가 소년 왕이 죽고 왕위는 스페인 어머니의 딸인 그의 이복 누이에게 넘어갔습니다. 메리. 혈통의 절반은 스페인 사람이고 외모는 전적으로 스페인 사람인 메리는 스페인의 필립과 결혼하여 영국을 로마로 다시 가져오겠다고 결심했습니다. 1,200명의 기혼 성직자가 직장에서 해고되었습니다. 추는 바로 뒤로 돌아갔고, 마리아의 통치 기간 동안 거의 300명의 위대한 기독교인들이 처형당했고, 그녀는 다음과 같은 무서운 별명을 얻었습니다. 블러디 메리. 그녀는 그럴 자격이 있었습니다.
옥스퍼드의 Balliol College 외곽 메인 스트리트에는 두 남자를 기리는 기념비가 있습니다. 라티머와 리들리, 개신교 신앙 때문에 마리아의 통치 기간 동안 화형에 처해졌습니다. 그리고 Latimer가 Ridley에게 한 말을 기억하실 것입니다. "안심하세요, 리들리 선생님. 그리고 남자 역할을 하십시오. 우리는 오늘 신의 은총으로 영국에서 결코 꺼지지 않을 촛불을 켜게 될 것입니다."
메리의 통치 기간 동안, 캔터베리 대주교 크랜머는 큰 압력을 받고 자신이 만든 변경 사항을 철회하는 문서에 서명했습니다. 그러나 그것을 쉽게 바꿀 수는 없었고, 그는 마음 속으로 자신이 틀렸다는 것을 알았고, 너무 빨리 자신이 화형을 향해 가고 있음을 깨달았습니다. 결속될 때가 되자 그는 자신의 개신교 입장을 철회한 것에 대해 공개적으로 반성을 표명하고, 종이에 서명한 팔을 불 속에 던져 종이가 타오르는 것을 지켜보았습니다. 그는 그런 서류에 서명한 손을 먼저 태워야 한다고 말했습니다. 그것은 Cranmer와 300명의 다른 사람들이었습니다. Hooper는 Gloucester에서 불에 탔습니다. 많은 사람들이 화형에 처해졌고, 스미스필드의 화재, 당신은 그들에 대해 들어 본 적이 있습니다. 네 명의 주교와 한 명의 대주교, 그리고 다른 많은 주요 설교자들이 마리아의 통치 기간에 처형되었습니다.
엘리자베스 1세가 왕위에 올랐을 때 안도의 한숨을 쉬었을 것이라고 상상해 보십시오. 교황과 다른 많은 사람들의 눈에 그녀는 사생아였습니다. 교황은 스코틀랜드의 메리 여왕을 정당한 상속자로 여겼고, 스코틀랜드의 메리 여왕과 엘리자베스 사이의 반역 혐의의 뿌리가 여기에 있습니다. 그러나 박해는 끝났고, 난민들이 영국으로 몰려들었습니다.
우리가 영국 교회라고 부르는 전형적인 영국의 혼란이 실제로 구체화된 것은 엘리자베스 1세의 통치 기간이었습니다. 엘리자베스는 화려한 예배를 좋아하고, 의복을 좋아하고, 의식을 좋아했기 때문에 그런 것들을 버리는 것이 불행했습니다. 그녀는 에드워드의 두 번째 기도서가 너무 개신교적이어서 개정하여 로마로 가져갔다고 말했습니다. 그녀는 이 땅에 선한 능력을 베풀어 왔던 목회자들과 함께 성경을 공부하는 모임도 중단했습니다. 그러나 그녀는 Mary가 노력했던 것처럼 시계를 되돌릴 수 없었습니다. 엘리자베스 정착지, 소위 말하는 일종의 중간 주택에 정착했습니다. 그리고 오늘날 영국 교회가 복음주의와 앵글로 카톨릭을 모두 수용할 수 있는 이유를 알고 싶다면 엘리자베스 1세로 돌아가야 합니다. 왜냐하면 의회가 부과한 중간 입장에 두는 것이 바로 그러한 종류의 혼합에 문을 활짝 열어 놓았기 때문입니다.
공동 기도서는 전체적으로는 아니지만 대체로 개신교로 남아 있습니다. 그리고 엘리자베스 치하에서 마침내 작성된 39개의 기사는 개신교 신앙에 대한 놀라운 진술입니다. 39개 조항을 설교하는 성직자는 복음을 설교하는 성직자입니다. 슬프게도 모든 사람이 그런 것은 아니지만 그것은 책에 있고 그 안에는 철저한 복음주의 영국 교회를 건설할 만큼 충분한 개신교가 들어 있으며, 나중에 나온 다른 교회의 가능성도 있습니다.




엘리자베스는 인기가 없게 죽었지만, 스페인의 필리프 2세가 스코틀랜드의 메리 여왕 처형에 분노해 영국을 무력으로 침공하고 교황에게 돌려보내겠다고 맹세하자 인기가 회복되었습니다. 그는 스페인 무적함대, 160척의 배와 3만 명의 해병을 보냈고, 해협 건너편에는 침공이 시작되는 순간 건너올 군대가 집결해 있었습니다. 영국은 동맹도 없이 절망적인 상황에 놓였고, 유럽의 집결한 군사력이 해협을 따라 밀려오는 듯했습니다.
그러나 영국에는 프랜시스 드레이크 경이 있었고, 여러분은 아마 나보다 그 이야기를 더 잘 알 것입니다. 영국의 뛰어난 선원술과 불리한 바람 때문에 무적함대는 패주했고, 다루기 힘든 스페인 갤리온선 일부는 영국과 스코틀랜드 해안을 따라 난파했습니다. 오늘날에도 난파선 사냥꾼들이 그 흔적을 찾고 있습니다.
Pawson은 개인적인 세부 사항을 추가합니다. 스코틀랜드 북부에서 난파된 스페인 갤리온선, 해변에 와서 "세인트 클레어"라고 불리는 선원들, 현지 소녀들과 결혼하고 Sinclair 일족을 창립하는 것입니다. 그의 어머니는 싱클레어 출신이어서 그의 설명에 따르면 그는 무적함대에서 스페인 혈통을 물려받았습니다. (이것은 검증된 역사적 사건이 아닌 순전히 가족 일화이지만 Pawson조차도 이 훨씬 더 큰 이야기에 자신의 작은 실을 엮어 놓았다는 것을 보여주는 매력적인 세부 사항입니다.)
개혁자들을 요약하면: 독일, 스위스, 영국 세 곳 중 어느 곳에서도 종교개혁이 완전히 이루어지지 않았습니다. 같은 이유로 교회와 국가는 너무 밀접하게 연관되어 있었습니다. 국가가 교회를 운영하든지 교회가 국가를 운영하든지, 종교가 지역 전체에 강요되었고 결국 전쟁으로 이어졌습니다. Pawson은 묻습니다. 사람들이 그리스도의 이름으로, 기독교의 이름으로 종교를 놓고 전쟁을 벌여 서로 죽이는 것보다 더 비극적인 것이 있습니까?

로마인: 반종교개혁의 세 갈래
그러면 로마인들은 그동안 무엇을 하고 있었습니까? 루터가 등장한 지 60년이 지나자 개신교는 독일 대부분과 덴마크·노르웨이·스웨덴, 스위스와 프랑스의 상당 부분, 영국으로 퍼졌습니다. 반면 아일랜드와 이탈리아, 스페인은 가톨릭으로 남았습니다. 놀라운 점은 이 모든 일이 60년 동안 일어났고, 그 뒤 300년 동안 종교적 경계가 거의 그대로 유지되었다는 것입니다. 왜 개신교는 60년 동안 그토록 빠르게 퍼졌다가 멈추었을까요?
대답은 로마가 반종교개혁을 시작했다는 것입니다. 유럽의 절반을 빼앗긴 로마는 그 공격에 무너질 생각이 없었습니다. 개신교의 홍수를 막기 위해 세 가지 일이 일어났습니다.
첫 번째: 이그나티우스 로욜라(Ignatius Loyola)와 예수회. 로욜라는 전쟁에서 중상을 입은 스페인 귀족으로, 다리가 부러진 채 몇 달 동안 병원에 누워 있었습니다. 그 기간 동안 그는 종교적으로 환상과 마음의 변화를 겪었고, 개신교의 확산을 막는 것이 자신의 삶의 소명이라고 믿으며 독실한 가톨릭 신자가 되었습니다. 그는 그렇게 하는 것이 다른 군대와는 매우 다른 방식으로 싸우는 것을 의미한다고 믿었습니다. 그의 추종자들은 거의 "로마의 구세군"이라고 부를 수 있습니다. 그는 파리로 가서 여섯 명의 귀족과 귀부인들을 모아서 예수회, 예수회라고 널리 알려져 있습니다. 로욜라의 목표는 로마를 위해 유럽을 지키고 개신교의 홍수를 막는 것이었고 솔직히 그는 그 목표를 크게 달성했습니다.
그는 수백 명을 모아 상상할 수 있는 가장 엄격한 군사적 규율을 적용했습니다. 영신수련이라는 책에 그 규율을 기록했는데, 25일간 금식하고 환상을 구하며 여러 훈련을 하는 과정이었습니다. 마지막에는 이그나티우스 로욜라의 추종자가 될 준비가 됩니다. 더구나 로마를 위해 누군가를 붙잡아 둘 수만 있다면 선한 수단이든 악한 수단이든 필요한 어떤 수단도 사용할 태세가 되어 있었고, 그래서 영어 **“Jesuitry”에는 부정적인 뜻이 담겼습니다. 그중 한 사람인 **프란치스코 하비에르는 인도와 동인도, 일본에서 70만 명을 로마 가톨릭으로 개종시켰습니다.
둘째: 트렌트 공의회. 교황은 논의가 필요하다고 판단해 공의회를 소집했습니다. 트렌트 공의회는 1545년부터 1563년까지 25회기에 걸쳐 열렸습니다. 처음에는 개신교도들을 초대해 차이를 해결할 수 있는지 알아보려 했지만, 추기경들이 초대하지 말라고 설득했고 그들은 오지 않았습니다. 그들이 왔다면 역사가 달라졌을지도 모릅니다. 그러나 초대받지 않았습니다.
트렌트는 다음과 같이 선언했습니다. 전통은 성경과 나란히 서 있습니다. 외경은 성경의 일부임에 틀림없습니다. 연옥이 존재합니다. 면죄부, 성인, 성상, 성물에 대한 기원은 올바르고 경건한 행위입니다. 그리고 교황은 절대적인 권위를 가지고 있습니다. 로마교회가 이렇게 공식적으로 말한 것은 이번이 처음이었습니다. 그리고 솔직하지만 사랑스럽게 말씀드리자면, 그 중 어느 하나도 오늘날까지 변하지 않았습니다. 그리고 실제로 그럴 수 없습니다. 평의회가 오류를 범할 수 없다고 믿는다면 이러한 일이 이제 어떻게 거부될 수 있습니까? 최근 바티칸 공의회는 많은 것을 정리하고 조정하고 많은 것을 탐구했지만 제가 방금 읽은 내용은 전혀 변하지 않았습니다. 로마가 개정표준역 성경을 받아들이겠다고 말할 때에도 외경이 포함되어 있다면 단서가 붙습니다.
셋째, 인퀴지션이 부활했습니다. 고문, 투옥, 죽음이 프로테스탄트에 대한 도구로 사용되었습니다. 그들은 스페인의 거의 모든 개신교인, 이탈리아의 대부분의 개신교인, 그리고 오스트리아와 같은 다른 곳에서 말살되었습니다. 그 결과 오늘날까지도 우리가 이해하는 그리스도인들은 그 나라에서 극소수로 남아 있습니다.
왜 60년 뒤 물결이 멈췄는가
반종교개혁의 세 갈래 공격
1580년 무렵, 루터 이후 60년이 지나자 개신교는 독일·스칸디나비아·스위스·프랑스·잉글랜드 대부분으로 퍼졌다. 그 뒤 300년 동안 전선은 거의 움직이지 않았다. 세 가지가 물결을 멈추었다.
예수회
로욜라의 이냐시오, 1540년
“로마의 구원군”: 엄격한 규율, 30일 영신수련 피정, 정당한 수단과 부당한 수단을 모두 사용할 의지. 이것이 “예수회적 술수”라는 부정적 의미의 기원이다. 프란치스코 하비에르는 인도와 일본까지 갔다.
트리엔트 공의회
1545–1563, 25회기
성경과 전통, 외경, 연옥, 면죄부와 성화·성유물 공경의 정당성을 다시 확인했다. 개신교도들도 실제로 초대받았지만(1551–52년 안전통행증 아래), 작센의 모리츠가 일으킨 전쟁이 그 시도를 중단시켰다.
종교재판
부활한 종교재판
고문·투옥·처형을 사용해 스페인의 거의 모든 개신교도와 이탈리아의 대부분을 없애려 했다. 그러나 현대 연구(헨리 카멘)는 같은 시기 잉글랜드에서 메리 1세가 처형한 사람 수보다 스페인의 실제 희생자 수가 적었다고 본다.



급진파: 단 하나의 검으로 양쪽 모두에 대항
이제 세 번째 그룹은 가장 간략하게 설명할 수 있지만 가장 중요하다고 생각하는 그룹입니다. 그들은 급진파라고 불립니다. 종교개혁의 극좌파였기 때문입니다. 내가 최근에 읽은 책에서는 그들을 "종교개혁의 의붓자식들"이라고 부릅니다. 그들은 누구였으며, 무엇을 믿었습니까? 그들은 가장 근본적인 질문을 던지기 시작한 사람들이었습니다. 누가 개혁해야 합니까? 누가 변화를 일으켜야 합니까? 그리고 그들은 로마 측도 종교개혁자들도 아직 도달하지 못한 중대한 결론에 도달했습니다. 교회는 국가와 전혀 관련이 없어야 한다는 것이었습니다. 즉, 교회와 국가는 완전히 다른 몸이므로 서로 너무 가까이 서 있어서는 안 됩니다. 이 급진주의자들은 자유 교회, 즉 국가가 세운 교회가 아닌 교회를 믿었습니다. 그들은 확립된 개신교에도 만족하지 않았습니다. 정부를 통해 사람들을 선하게 만들 수 없다고 말했습니다. 종교를 강요할 수는 없습니다. 사람들 스스로 자유롭고 자발적으로 받아들여야 합니다. 영국의 모든 사람이 개신교인이어야 한다고 말할 수는 없고, 스페인의 모든 사람이 로마 가톨릭 신자여야 한다고 말할 수도 없습니다. 오직 하나의 검, 곧 성령의 검인 하나님의 말씀만 사용할 수 있습니다. 그래서 그들은 평화주의자였습니다. 개신교와 가톨릭교 사이의 전쟁에서 싸우기를 거부했습니다. 그들은 말했습니다. 우리는 복음을 위해 싸우지 않을 것입니다. 우리는 오직 성령의 검, 곧 하나님의 말씀만 사용할 것입니다.
이것은 혁명적이었습니다. 그들은 교회와 국가가 서로 속한다는 생각을 무너뜨리는 위험한 혁명가로 여겨졌습니다. 이 운동은 1522년 스위스 취리히에서 시작되었고, 그들은 스스로를 “형제”라고 불렀습니다. 지도자는 콘라트 그레벨과 펠릭스 만츠였습니다. 츠빙글리가 시의회를 통해 모든 사람에게 개신교를 강요하던 바로 그 도시에서, 그들은 그것이 옳은 길이 아니라고 말했습니다. 말씀을 전하고 사람들이 자발적으로 받아들일 때 교회를 세워야 한다는 것이었습니다. 그들은 지금 우리가 종교의 자유라고 부르는 것을 위해 싸우고 있었습니다.
이제 매우 슬픈 사실을 말씀드리겠습니다. 이 사람들을 공격한 것은 로마 측뿐 아니라 개혁자들도 마찬가지였습니다. 마르틴 루터는 독일 제후들에게 급진파를 상대로 칼을 사용해야 한다고 했고, 칼빈도 이에 동의했습니다. 펠릭스 만츠는 재세례파 신앙 때문에 익사당했습니다. 츠빙글리도 취리히 시의회가 이들을 처벌하는 잔혹한 법을 통과시키도록 영향력을 행사했습니다. 로마 측과 개혁자들은 모두 국가를 이용해 그리스도의 이름으로 실제 칼을 사용했지만, 급진파는 성령의 검, 곧 하나님의 말씀 외에는 사용하지 않겠다고 말했습니다.
그러나 이야기는 거기서 끝나지 않습니다. Pawson은 또한 급진파 중 "Zwickau의 Thomas Münzer와 같은 일부 광신자와 극단주의자"를 언급하지만, 면밀한 연구에 따르면 그들 대부분은 그런 평판을 받을 자격이 없는 것으로 나타났습니다.
메노 시몬스를 만나 메노파를 알게 되었다면, 그 위대한 그리스도인들에게 그를 빚지고 있는 셈입니다. 야코프 후터를 알게 되었다면 후터파 공동체에도 같은 말을 할 수 있습니다. 나는 이들이 가장 훌륭한 개혁자들이었다고 생각합니다. 그들은 하나님의 말씀에 따르지 않는 모든 것을 스스로 바꾸겠다고 했고, 왕자나 교황이 바꾸어 주기를 기다리지 않았습니다. 개인으로서나 공동체로서나 하나님의 말씀에 따라 살고 최대한 순종하려 했습니다.
오늘 우리가 여기에 있는 것은 그 아나뱁티스트들 때문입니다. 엘리자베스 1세 시대에 영국에서 그들의 영향력과 사상이 독립파라는 집단으로 나타났고, 그들은 “우리는 자유로운 교회를 원한다”고 말했습니다. 영국에서는 그것을 찾을 수 없었기 때문에 그들은 메이플라워호를 타고 미국으로 출발해, 자신이 옳다고 느끼는 신앙을 따를 개인의 자유라는 종교적 자유의 원칙을 그곳에 영원히 정착시키려 했습니다. 이것이 우리의 유산입니다. 그리고 이것이 그들이 싸우고 죽은 이유입니다.
그들 중에는 츠비카우의 토마스 뮌처 같은 광신자들과 극단주의자들도 있었습니다. 그러나 대체로 그들의 이야기를 연구해 보면, 그 이야기는 이제야 제대로 쓰이고 있으며 연구 결과도 이제야 널리 공개되고 있다는 사실을 알게 됩니다. 이제야 사람들이 아나뱁티스트의 진정한 위치를 보기 시작했습니다. 그들은 종교의 자유를 위해 싸우고 죽었지만, 바로 그 목적을 위해 싸웠습니다. 그들은 혁명가라는 비난을 받았지만 예수 그리스도도 같은 비난을 받았습니다. 그리고 예수께서는 이렇게 말씀하셨습니다. "내 나라는 이 세상에 속한 것이 아니니라 만일 그랬더라면 내 종들이 싸웠으리라" 이것이 바로 아나뱁티스트가 말한 내용입니다.
다음 일요일, 신의 뜻에 따라 저는 영국에 종교의 자유가 찾아온 시대, 사람들이 이 땅에서 자신의 신념을 따르기 시작한 시대인 17세기에 대한 이야기를 들려드리겠습니다. 윌리엄 펜의 시대. 존 번연의 시대. 그리고 또 다른 많은 위대한 하나님의 종의 시대입니다.
하나의 칼로 둘을 맞서다
급진파: 어떤 국가도 그들을 보호하지 않았고 양쪽 모두 공격했다
1525년 취리히에서 그레벨과 만츠는 이렇게 말했다. 교회는 “성령의 칼”, 곧 말씀 외에는 어떤 칼도 사용해서는 안 된다. 세례는 신자에게만 베풀어야 한다. 로마와 개혁자 모두 이것을 목숨을 앗아 갈 만큼 위험한 원칙으로 여겼다.
로마의 칼
종교재판, 이단에 대한 형법
개혁자들의 칼
츠빙글리: 펠릭스 만츠, 1527년 취리히에서 익사 · 칼빈: 세르베투스 화형에 연루, 1553년
가운데에는 재세례파가 있었다. 그들은 “하나의 칼만”, 곧 말씀만 사용했고 양쪽의 공격을 받으면서도 다른 칼을 들기를 거부했다.

제2부: 17세기, 예배의 자유를 위한 투쟁
Pawson의 다음 강의는 윌리엄 틴들의 이전 작업에 크게 빚진 번역본인 1607년에 인쇄된 성경을 읽는 것으로 시작합니다. 그는 바울의 빌립보서 전체를 읽습니다. 빌립보서는 감옥에서 쓰였고, 17세기에는 감옥에서 나온 위대한 저작물도 여럿 생겨날 것이기 때문입니다. 그중 가장 유명한 것은 존 번연의 천로역정입니다.
그는 세기를 1600부터 1700까지 명확하게 정의합니다. 그리고 두 끝의 차이점이 강의의 전체 요점입니다. 1600에서 이 회중은 오늘 밤 예배를 드리기 위해 모이는 것이 허용되지 않았을 것입니다. 1700까지 그렇게 될 것입니다. 그는 예배의 자유가 어떻게 이 땅에 왔는가를 보여주기 위해 출발합니다. 그래서 지난 200–300년 동안 사람들은 이렇게 모일 수 있었고, 아무도 그들을 방해하거나 감옥에 끌고 가거나 처형하지 않고 그들이 마땅하다고 느끼는 대로 예배를 드릴 수 있었습니다. 그리고 이 세기에 전투가 벌어졌고 마침내 승리했습니다.
영국, 1600, 그리고 킹 제임스 성경의 모험
1600년의 상황
영국의 세 기독교 집단
1600년에는 이 교회가 오늘 밤처럼 모이는 것이 허락되지 않았을 것이다. 1700년에는 허락되었다. 이것은 예배의 자유가 어떻게 영국에 왔는지에 관한 이야기다.
성공회 신자들
엘리자베스의 “중간 길”을 받아들였다. 옛 로마 관행과 종교개혁의 변화가 섞인 형태였다.
청교도
여전히 영국 국교회 안에 있었지만 제의와 십자가상, 촛불을 없애고 말씀 중심의 소박한 예배를 원했다. 리처드 백스터가 이들을 대표했다.
독립파
영국 국교회 밖에 완전히 서 있었으며 분리파 또는 회중파라고도 불렸다. 표어는 “누구도 기다리지 않는 종교개혁”이었다.
17세기 초 영국에는 자신이 그리스도인이라고 고백하는 세 집단이 있었습니다. 법으로 금지된 로마 가톨릭 신자는 공식적으로는 없다고 했지만, 실제로는 비밀리에 신앙을 지키는 사람들이 남아 있었습니다. 영국 국교회 안에는 두 집단이 있었습니다. 엘리자베스 여왕이 마련한 타협을 받아들인 성공회파, 그리고 예복과 십자가상과 촛불 없이 단순하게 예배하며 무엇보다 의식이 아니라 하나님의 말씀을 중심에 두는 더 순수한 영국 국교회를 원한 청교도입니다. 리처드 백스터가 목회한 키더민스터 교구가 좋은 사례입니다. 백스터는 일요일마다 두세 시간 가르쳤을 뿐 아니라 집집마다 찾아가 각 가정에 성경 공부를 제공했습니다. 이것이 그가 키더민스터에 끼친 영향의 비결입니다.
영국 국교회 밖에는 세 번째 집단이 있었습니다. 독립파는 분리주의자, 브라운주의자(브라운이라는 사람의 이름에서 유래), 또는 회중주의자라고도 불렸습니다. 각 회중이 주님 아래에서 자기 일을 스스로 다스려야 한다고 믿었기 때문입니다. 그들의 표어는 ‘지체 없는 개혁’이었습니다. 의회나 국교회가 바뀌기를 기다리지 않고 지금 자기 지역 교회에서 성경에 따라 살아가겠다는 뜻입니다. 시인 존 밀턴은 세기 초 회중주의 계열의 좋은 사례입니다. 그들 가운데 많은 사람이 그 대가로 목숨을 잃었는데, 그린우드와 배로도 그중에 속합니다.
스코틀랜드의 제임스 6세가 잉글랜드의 제임스 1세가 되었습니다. 처음부터 그는 종교를 통치하는 왕의 신권과 교회를 통치하는 주교의 신권을 비밀리에 주장했지만 아직 스코틀랜드의 왕일 때 그것을 조용히 지켰습니다. 그가 남쪽으로 왔을 때 영국인들은 그가 청교도 노선을 선호할 것이라고 기대했습니다. 그들은 빨리 충격을 받았습니다. 그는 다음과 같이 선언했습니다. "노회도 하나님과 악마처럼 군주제에 동의합니다." 그의 표어: "주교도 없고 왕도 없습니다."
1604년 제임스는 햄프턴 코트 궁전에서 주요 그리스도인들의 회의를 소집했습니다. 그곳에서 그는 청교도들을 무자비하게 조롱하고 모욕했습니다. “여러분은 분위기를 망치는 사람들이다. 일요일 스포츠를 좋아하지 않는가? 그렇다면 일요일에 스포츠와 오락을 허용하도록 법을 만들겠다”고 그들을 자극했습니다. 그러나 그 자리에는 옥스퍼드의 유명한 교수 레이놀즈도 있었습니다. 예의 바르고 성자 같은 신사였던 그는 모든 조롱과 웃음에도 조금도 흔들리지 않았습니다. 그는 자기 입장을 지켰습니다. 제임스의 독설이 바닥나자 레이놀즈 박사는 “폐하, 새 영어 성경이 필요할 때가 되었습니다”라고 제안했습니다. 놀랍게도 제임스는 그 제안을 받아들였고, 햄프턴 코트 회의 뒤 7년에 걸친 고된 작업이 이른바 킹 제임스 성경을 만들어 냈습니다. 이 이름은 제임스가 번역을 시작하거나 직접 수행해서가 아니라, 번역이 끝나 그에게 봉헌되었을 때 그가 왕이었기 때문에 붙었습니다. 그가 승인했기에 ‘공인역’이라고도 부릅니다. 이 나라에서 평생 사용해 온 성경, 350년 동안 사용된 성경은 햄프턴 코트의 한 청교도가 제안해 1611년 완성된 결과였습니다.
그해는 영국에 중요한 해였습니다. 영국 최초의 침례교회가 1611년에 세워졌고, 공인역과 같은 해였습니다. 그러나 회의가 끝난 뒤 제임스는 모든 성직자에게 감독의 지시를 완전히 따르라고 요구하는 선언을 발표했습니다. 1,500명의 목사가 서명을 거부했고, 그중 300명은 즉시 감옥에 갔다고 Pawson은 말합니다. 이것은 영국 국교회가 처음 갈라지는 순간이었고, 종교개혁 때 사라졌던 예복과 의례가 그 틈을 통해 다시 돌아와 이후에도 남게 되었습니다.




청교도 성직자들은 아일랜드로 도망쳤고, 당시 그곳의 대주교는 날짜 계산으로 유명한 어셔였습니다. 공인역 성경의 창세기 머리에 ‘기원전 4004년’이라고 인쇄된 것을 본 적이 있다면, 하나님이 성경에 직접 적어 주신 적 없는 그 날짜를 어셔 대주교가 계산해 넣은 것입니다. 그는 아담의 창조를 그해 10월 21일 오전 9시 무렵으로 추산했습니다. 한 영국 학자는 어셔가 신중한 학자였기에 그보다 더 정확한 시각까지 단정하지 않았다고 건조하게 말했습니다.
양심에 따라 예배할 수 없었던 사람들은 동쪽의 네덜란드로 도망쳤습니다. 스크루비라는 작은 마을에는 신실한 목사 존 로빈슨의 지도 아래 독립교회로 모이는 회중이 있었습니다. 지역 영주가 치안판사들을 데리고 와 그들을 위협하자, 그들은 배를 구해 네덜란드로 건너가기로 했습니다. 이야기에 따르면 보스턴 근처에서 만나기로 한 네덜란드 배는 발각을 피하려고 두 척으로 나뉘었고, 한 척에는 남자들이, 다른 척에는 여자와 아이들이 탔습니다. 여자와 아이들을 태운 배는 진흙에 좌초되었고, 남자들이 네덜란드 배에 먼저 도착하자 영국군이 해안에 나타나 총을 쏘며 배를 떠나게 했습니다. 여자와 아이들은 갯벌에 남겨졌지만, 다행히 1~2년 뒤 네덜란드로 빠져나가 그들과 다시 만났습니다.
그러나 암스테르담에서 어떤 일이 일어나고 있었습니다. 일단의 그리스도인들이 세례 문제를 연구하기 시작했습니다. 그때까지 모든 종교개혁자들은 수세기 동안 행해졌던 대로 유아세례를 행했습니다. 암스테르담에서는 헬위스라는 사람이 이끄는 집단이 이 문제를 살펴보기 시작했고, 세례는 오직 신자들만을 위한 것이라는 결론에 이르렀습니다. 세례를 베풀 자격이 있는 사람이 없었기 때문에 두 사람은 “내가 당신에게 세례를 베풀면 당신이 나에게 세례를 베풀라”고 합의했습니다. 그러다가 일자리를 찾을 수 없게 되자 그들은 런던으로 돌아갈 위험을 무릅썼고, 1611년 런던 스피털필즈에 영국 최초의 침례교회가 세워졌습니다.
왕은 하나님이 아니라 필멸의 인간이므로, 신민의 필멸의 영혼을 지배하여 그들을 위해 법과 조례를 만들거나 그들 위에 영적 군주를 세울 권한이 없습니다. 사람이 하나님께 드리는 종교는 하나님과 사람 사이의 문제이며, 왕은 그 일에 대해 책임지지 않습니다... 그들이 이단자든, 터키인이든, 유대인이든, 무엇이든 간에, 그들을 조금이라도 처벌하는 것은 세속 권력의 권한이 아닙니다. Thomas Helwys, "불법의 신비에 대한 짧은 선언"(1612)


메이플라워 호와 찰스 1세: 의회 없는 11년
저지대에 머물던 또 다른 독립파 사람들은 유럽에서 계속 사는 일이 비현실적이고, 환영받지 못하며, 일자리도 없고 굶주리기까지 한다는 사실을 깨달았습니다. 그래서 영국으로 돌아가 배를 타고 신세계로 가서, 국가가 지시하지 않아도 사람들이 예배할 수 있는 자유로운 세계를 미국에 세우려 했습니다. 그들은 돌아가 집주인을 설득해 메이플라워호가 그들을 태우게 했고, 훗날 순례자 조상들이라 불리게 되었습니다. 그들은 1620년 플리머스를 떠나 그해 12월 신세계의 플리머스에 도착했습니다. 그러나 힘겨운 경험이 기다리고 있었습니다. 첫 겨울에 식량 부족과 추위, 의료 부족으로 약 50%가 사망했습니다. 그들은 남아 정착지를 세웠고, 그곳에 이미 자리 잡은 성공회 정착민들과 충돌하면서도 훗날 미국이 국가와 교회의 관계에서 완전히 자유롭다고 말할 수 있게 된 어떤 일을 시작했습니다.
그래서 제임스 치하에서 일부는 아일랜드로, 일부는 네덜란드로 갔지만 영국에서는 순응해야 했습니다. 제임스의 뒤를 이은 사람은 찰스 1세였고, 그의 아버지보다도 더 나빴습니다. 그 역시 왕과 주교의 신권을 믿었고 훨씬 더 밀어붙였습니다. 청교도들을 감옥에 가두고 무거운 벌금을 부과했으며, 기둥에 세우고 귀와 코를 자르는 일까지 찰스 1세 치하에서 일어났습니다. 당시 캔터베리 대주교 윌리엄 로드는 찰스가 ‘시계를 되돌리도록’ 도왔습니다. 교구 교회의 성찬상은 다시 ‘제단’이라 불렸고 사람들은 그 앞에 절하도록 강요받았습니다. 의회는 반대했지만 찰스 1세는 의회 없이 통치했습니다. 11년 동안 말입니다. 오늘날 왕이나 여왕이 그렇게 하는 모습을 상상할 수 있습니까?
런던 시민 15,000명이 궁전으로 행진해 찰스 1세에게 “뿌리와 가지 청원”을 제출했습니다. ‘뿌리와 가지’라는 말은 모든 ‘로마교의 미신’을 뿌리째 뽑아야 한다는 뜻이었습니다. 찰스 1세는 듣기를 거부했고, 얼마 지나지 않아 1642년 영국에서 내전이 일어났습니다. 의회는 왕과 싸웠고, 그 싸움에는 종교적 쟁점이 깊이 얽혀 있었습니다. 대체로 성공회파는 왕 편에, 청교도는 의회 편에 섰습니다. 북부와 서부는 대체로 왕의 손에, 남부와 동부는 의회의 손에 들어갔습니다. 오늘날 자유교회를 연구해도 여전히 비슷한 패턴을 발견하게 되는 이유입니다.
의회를 위해 싸운 가장 위대한 인물 가운데 한 명은 존 햄프던이었습니다. 에일즈버리 시장 광장에는 그의 동상이 있습니다. 안타깝게도 그는 전쟁 초기에 목숨을 잃었고, 의회군은 패배하기 시작했습니다. 그들이 새로운 지도자를 기다리던 때 올리버 크롬웰이 등장했습니다. 크롬웰은 군대를 신형군으로 재편했고, “하나님을 믿고 화약을 마르게 하라”는 유명한 구호 아래 종교의 자유를 위해 싸우는 군대에 새로운 사기를 불어넣었습니다.
이 내전 중에 웨스트민스터 신학자 총회(Westminster Assembly of Divines)가 열렸습니다. 옥스퍼드와 케임브리지 출신의 성직자와 학자들이 모여 모두가 받아들일 수 있는 교회 생활의 형태를 만들려 했고, 몇몇 스코틀랜드인이 초대되어 깊은 영향을 끼쳤습니다. 총회는 웨스트민스터 신앙고백을 발표했습니다. 이 문서는 오늘날까지 스코틀랜드 교회뿐 아니라 세계 대부분의 장로교회가 고백하는 신앙고백으로 남아 있습니다. 아마 이 책에서 다음 문장을 인용할 수 있을 것입니다. “사람의 제일 되는 목적은 하나님을 영화롭게 하고 영원토록 그분을 즐거워하는 것이다.” 이 문장은 내전 중 웨스트민스터에서 정리되었습니다. 그러나 모두가 받아들인 것은 아니었습니다. 스코틀랜드인들은 받아들였지만 영국인들은 끝내 받아들이지 않았습니다.
찰스 1세는 여전히 주변에 있었지만 마침내 런던으로 이송되어 처형을 기다렸습니다. 그는 몇 주 동안, 어쩌면 며칠 동안 스토크 포지스의 저택에 갇혀 있었다고 합니다. 기회가 있다면 그곳의 영주 저택을 방문해 보십시오. 벽난로 위 회반죽 벽에는 찰스 1세의 문장이 그려져 있습니다. 그는 시간을 보내고 처형 생각을 잊으려고 회반죽에 자신의 문장을 그렸다고 전해집니다. 지금은 유리로 덮여 있지만, 스토크 포지스의 큰 방에 가면 1649년 화이트홀에서 참수되기 전의 흔적을 볼 수 있습니다.
한 세기, 여섯 왕의 통치
스튜어트 군주들과 그들의 종교 정책
제임스 1세
1603–1625
“감독이 없으면 왕도 없다” — 청교도들을 압박했지만 흠정역 성경(1611)을 낳았다
찰스 1세
1625–1649
로드와 함께 의식을 더 밀어붙였고 의회 없이 11년 통치했다. 내전 뒤 처형되었다
공화국
1649–1660
크롬웰. 처음에는 장로교도가, 그다음에는 독립파가 권력을 잡았다 — “새 장로교도는 크게 써 놓은 옛 사제일 뿐이다”
찰스 2세
1660–1685
왕정복고. 1662년 대추방이 있었고 은밀히 가톨릭에 호의적이었다
제임스 2세
1685–1688
공공연한 가톨릭 신자로 영국을 로마로 되돌리기로 결심했으나 폐위되었다
윌리엄과 메리
1689–
관용법으로 안정과 관용의 시대가 시작되었다(가톨릭 신자는 제외)







Bunyan, "새 장로는 크게 쓰여진 늙은 사제에 불과하다", 그리고 찰스 2세의 통치
올리버 크롬웰과 함께 싸운 군인들 중에는 술을 많이 마시고, 싸우고, 욕을 많이 하는 청년이 있었는데, 그는 베드퍼드 바로 외곽에 있는 엘스토우라는 작은 마을에서 태어났습니다. 그의 이름은 존 번연. (그에 대해 곧 자세히 설명하겠습니다.)
남북 전쟁 이후 장로교인들은 영국 교회를 장악하고 모든 사람을 장로교인으로 만들려고 노력했습니다. 우스꽝스럽지 않나요? 성공회가 통제할 때는 모두가 성공회여야 합니다. 장로교인들이 그것을 이해하게 되면 모든 사람은 장로교인이어야 합니다. 누군가가 이렇게 말하게 만들었습니다. "새 목사는 늙은 목사에 불과하다." 즉, 우리는 하나의 폭정을 다른 폭정으로 바꾸었습니다.
마침내 우리는 통치에 이르렀습니다. 찰스 2세, 원칙이 부족하고 방탕했기에 충분히 나쁘다고 말할 수 없는 사람입니다. 스코틀랜드인들은 그를 먼저 받아들였고, 그가 더 순수한 청교도 교회를 위해 스코틀랜드인 및 영국 장로교 의회와 싸울 것이라고 생각하여 스콘에서 그에게 왕관을 씌웠습니다. 스코틀랜드인들은 곧 자신들의 어리석음을 후회했습니다. 그 이야기에 들어갈 수가 없어요. 성약파에 대해서는, 스코틀랜드의 언약도들이 자신들이 마땅히 받아야 한다고 생각하는 예배를 드리기 위해 비밀리에 모였고 찰스 2세 치하에서 고통을 겪었다고만 말할 뿐입니다.
찰스 2세는 비밀리에 로마 가톨릭교회에 동정적이었고, 그의 야망은 음모를 통해 영국을 다시 로마 가톨릭교회로 되돌리려는 것이었습니다. 그는 프랑스의 루이 14세와 비밀 조약을 맺었습니다. 이후 1661년부터 일련의 의회 법안이 시계를 종교개혁 이전 시대로 되돌렸고, 1662년 통일법이 그 절정이었습니다. 그해 거의 2,000명의 성직자가 통일법 준수를 거부했기 때문에 집과 직분을 잃고 미지의 삶으로 내몰렸습니다. 영어에는 새로운 단어인 ‘비국교도’가 생겼고, 그 가운데 한 사람이 바로 사랑받는 리처드 백스터였습니다.
1665년에는 또 다른 법안이 제정되었는데, 추방된 성직자들이 예전의 신도들을 만나기 위해 비밀리에 계속 돌아왔기 때문입니다. 의회는 어떤 성직자도 자신이 이전에 섬기던 교회에서 5마일 이내에 머물 수 없도록 했습니다. 이것이 5마일법입니다. 웬도버에 가면 마을 밖으로 걸어가야 하는 길가에 침례교회가 있는 것을 볼 수 있습니다. 애일즈버리의 한 목회자는 통일법 준수를 거부해 쫓겨난 뒤에도 애일즈버리로 몰래 돌아와 부엌과 정원에서 모임을 열었습니다. 5마일법이 시행되자 그는 애일즈버리에서 5마일을 걸어 나와 들판에서 모임을 시작했고, 그곳에 세워진 예배 장소가 오늘날의 웬도버 침례교회가 되었습니다.
1673에는 악명 높은 시험법, 의회는 영국에 로마 카톨릭 신자나 비국교도가 있어서는 안 되며, 모두가 이런 식으로 예배해야 한다고 말했습니다. 이로 인해 양심상 많은 고통을 겪었습니다.
박해에서 관용으로
거의 30년에 걸친 네 법령
1662
통일령
대추방. 순응을 거부한 수백 명에서 거의 2,000명에 이르는 성직자가 생계를 잃었다.
1665
5마일 법
추방된 성직자들은 이전 교구에서 5마일 이내에 머물 수 없었다.
1673
심사령
가톨릭 신자와 비국교도는 민간·군사 공직에 들어갈 수 없었지만 영국에 거주하는 것은 막지 않았다.
1689
관용법
비국교도들은 공개적으로 예배할 수 있었지만 가톨릭 신자들은 제외되었고 89–140년을 더 기다려야 했다.


존 번연, 조지 폭스, 윌리엄 펜: 양심수
바로 이 기간에 존 번연이 등장합니다. 그는 젊은 시절 술과 욕설, 싸움을 일삼았지만, 어느 날 뒷마당에서 몇몇 여성들이 예수님에 관해 이야기하는 것을 우연히 듣고 자신이 한 번도 들어 보지 못한 달콤한 말을 깨달았습니다. 그 일은 그의 죄를 자각하게 했고, 그는 회심하여 베드퍼드의 설교자가 되었습니다. 세례를 받은 신자로서 그는 갈 수 있는 곳마다 복음을 전했습니다.
존 번연은 찰스 2세 치하에서 12년 동안 감옥에 갇혔고, 그 사이 한 번의 짧은 휴식만 있었기에 앞을 보지 못하는 아내와 어린 자녀들과 떨어져 지냈습니다. 그는 감옥에서 등에 짐을 진 사람과 그 짐을 벗고 싶어 하는 사람의 꿈을 기록하기 시작했고, 그것이 《천로역정》이 되었습니다. 어린이용 축약본이 아니라 성인용으로 책 전체를 읽어 보십시오. 번연의 또 다른 중요한 책 《죄인의 괴수에게 넘치는 은혜》는 그의 회심과 설교자가 된 과정을 설명합니다. 그는 교회나 성례전을 특정 교파의 방식으로 언급하지 않았기 때문에, 이 책은 모든 교단의 그리스도인에게 받아들여졌고 지금까지 기독교 세계에서 가장 폭넓은 호소력을 지닌 책 가운데 하나가 되었습니다.
그는 1688년에 사망했고 런던의 번힐 필즈에 묻혔습니다. 생애 말년에 사람들은 그를 “번연 주교”라고 불렀지만, 그는 주교가 되기를 원한 적이 없었습니다. 사람들이 순회 목회 중 도움을 청하러 그에게 왔기에 그에게도 감독으로 불릴 권리가 있다고 여긴 것입니다.
번연의 이야기는 Pawson의 설명에는 전혀 나오지 않지만 기독교 세계의 반대편에서 거의 정확한 연대순·주제별 거울을 이룹니다. 니콘 총대주교의 전례 개혁은 1652년부터 러시아 교회를 분열시켰고, 1666~1667년 모스크바 대공의회는 그 개혁을 비준하고 옛 전례를 저주해 ‘구교도’ 분열을 낳았습니다. 중심인물인 대사제 아바쿰은 10년 넘게 투옥되었고, 그 기간에 대사제 아바쿰의 생애, 그 자신이 쓴 것(1672~1675년)을 썼습니다. 이는 번연의 죄인의 괴수에게 넘치는 은혜와 슬라브학자들이 자주 비교하는, 감옥에서 쓴 회심과 고난의 영적 자서전입니다. 아바쿰은 1682년 4월 14일 세 동료와 함께 산 채로 불탔으며, 번연이 자연사한 1688년보다 6년 전이었습니다. 같은 세기, 같은 주제, 국가가 강요한 전례의 획일성, 감옥에서 쓰인 영적 고전, 기독교 세계 양끝에서 운동의 창시자가 된 순교자가 두 인물을 연결합니다.

이 기간 동안 매우 다른 종류의 인물도 고통을 겪었습니다. 조지 폭스, 그는 1646년에 매우 깊은 영적 경험을 했습니다. 그 경험에는 아주 좋은 점도 있었고, 그다지 좋지 않은 점도 있었습니다. 조지 폭스(George Fox)는 모든 진리 안으로 인도하는 성령의 능력을 발견했습니다. 아니 재발견했습니다. 그는 이 경험을 다음과 같이 불렀다. "내면의 빛" 그리고 그는 말했습니다: 성경이 당신 밖에 있거나 심지어 머리 속에 있어도 소용이 없습니다. 당신 안에도 성령이 필요합니다. 그것은 재발견이 필요하고 말할 필요가 있는 것이었습니다. 성경을 무시할 수는 있지만 성령이 없으면 죽은 것이지 살아 있는 것이 아닙니다.
그러나 슬프게도 그는 좋은 것을 재발견한 후 한 걸음 더 나아가 오늘날 우리에게 필요한 확실한 예언의 말씀은 성경이 아니라 오직 성령뿐이라는 좋지 않은 말을 했습니다. 그 진술에서 뒤따른 운동의 가장 큰 약점이 나온다. 그는 같은 생각을 가진 사람들을 주위에 모았습니다. 친구 협회; 다른 사람들은 별명을 붙였다 퀘이커, 이는 그들이 집회에서 하나님 앞에서 떨고 떨었기 때문입니다. 그 이후로 그들의 강점이자 약점이 되었으며, 하나님이 성령을 통해 내적으로 말씀하실 수 있다고 믿는 것이 그들의 강점이 되었습니다. 그들의 약점은 그들이 주 예수께서 가지라고 하신 성례전을 거부하는 외적인 것, 또한 성경을 무시하고 전적으로 내적인 생각에 의존하는 경향이 있다는 것입니다.
조지 폭스는 그런 말을 했다는 이유로 투옥되었습니다. 찰스 2세의 통치 아래 4,000명의 퀘이커교도가 감옥에 갇혔습니다. 그 규모가 어느 정도였는지 상상한다면 그들의 고통을 이해할 수 있습니다. 특히 감옥에서는 친구들이 음식을 가져오지 않으면 먹을 수 없었고, 모든 퀘이커교도가 감옥에 있다면 그 음식을 가져다줄 사람도 남지 않았을 것입니다.
한 젊은 귀족이 말했습니다. 우리는 영국에서 마땅히 예배할 자유를 결코 얻지 못할 것입니다. 우리는 신세계로 가야 합니다. 그의 이름은 윌리엄 펜이었고, 펜은 이곳에서 1마일도 채 떨어지지 않은 조용하고 작은 조던스 집회소 묘지에 가족과 함께 묻혀 있습니다. 펜은 신세계로 가서 해안 식민지의 국경을 넘어 말했습니다. 우리는 종교의 자유를 누리게 될 것입니다. 펜실베이니아는 윌리엄 펜의 식민지로, 사람들은 성령의 내면의 빛을 따라 자유롭게 예배할 수 있었습니다. 그는 대서양을 서너 번 건넌 뒤 결국 이곳에서 죽어 조던스에 묻혔습니다.
그러나 Pawson 자신은 연결하지 않은 중요한 맥락이 있습니다. 윌리엄 펜은 제임스 2세와 가까운 개인적 관계를 맺고 있었습니다(제임스의 아버지는 펜의 아버지와 친구였습니다). 펜은 왕이 1687년 4월 가톨릭 신자와 비국교도 모두에게 예배의 자유를 주는 관용 선언을 발표하도록 설득하는 데 영향을 미쳤습니다. 보편적 관용을 옹호한 펜의 주장은 제임스의 가톨릭 관용 정책을 가능하게 하는 데 직접 기여했지만, 그 정책은 1688년 명예혁명으로 무너졌습니다.


제임스 2세, 윌리엄과 메리, 그리고 1700년의 상황
공언한 가톨릭 신자였던 제임스 2세는 찰스 2세처럼 은밀하게가 아니라 공개적으로 가톨릭을 회복하려 했습니다. 그는 이를 위해 역사상 잔혹한 인물로 악명 높은 제프리스 판사를 활용했습니다. 제임스의 통치는 영국인들에게 지나치게 가혹하게 느껴졌고, 국왕에 반대하는 민중 봉기가 일어나자 그는 결국 도망쳐야 했습니다.
마침내 그 기묘한 한 쌍, 윌리엄과 메리가 등장했습니다. 두 사람은 함께 영국 왕좌에 올라 안정과 관용의 새로운 시대를 열었고, 이후 영국 교회 생활의 기본 틀을 마련했습니다. 다만 로마 가톨릭 신자들은 다시 허용되지 않았고, 해방을 위해 또 한 세기를 기다려야 했습니다. 그래도 관용은 다른 사람들에게 확대되었습니다. 1689년에는 비국교도들이 적어도 부분적으로 인정되었고 박해가 멈추기 시작했습니다.
여기 책이 있습니다. 존 폭스의 행적과 기념물입니다. 증조부 세대에는 아이들이 일요일마다 이 책을 읽어야 했습니다. 지금이라면 내 아이들에게 이 책을 읽히거나, 이런 이야기로 아이들의 머리를 채우는 교사를 곁에 둘 수 있을지 모르겠습니다. 이 책은 신약 시대부터 1682년까지 그리스도교 순교자들의 끔찍한 이야기를 다룹니다. 저자는 폭스의 순교록 이후에는 더 이상 순교 이야기를 쓸 필요가 없고, 세기 말에 얻은 관용이 순교자 없이도 지속되기를 바랐던 것 같습니다. 어떤 의미에서는 영국에 더 이상 그런 일이 일어나지 않았습니다. 그러나 전 세계적으로 예수께서 십자가에 달리신 뒤 그리스도인들이 믿음 때문에 죽지 않은 기간은 10년이 채 되지 않았고, 지금도 세계 어딘가에서는 그런 일이 벌어지고 있습니다.
따라서 관용법으로 비국교도들이 처음으로 예배당을 세울 수 있었고, 바로 다음 해 조던스의 집회소도 세워졌습니다. 조던스 집회소의 건립 연도를 보면 1689년 관용법이 시행된 지 불과 몇 달 뒤였다는 것을 알 수 있습니다. 몇 년 뒤에는 아머셤 올드타운 침례교회도 시작되었고, 세기 말에는 비국교도들의 예배 장소가 천 곳에 이르렀습니다.
강의 시작에서 1600년의 상황을 살펴보았으니 이제 1700년의 상황을 보겠습니다. 영국 국교회 안에는 오늘날에도 흔적이 남아 있는 세 흐름이 있었습니다. 고교회파, 광교회파, 저교회파입니다. 고교회파는 여전히 로마교의 예배 관행을 동경했습니다. 저교회파는 예복과 제단 없이 탁자만 두는 단순한 예배를 드렸고, 스코틀랜드 교회와 비슷한 방식으로 주교제에 의문을 품었습니다. 그 사이에 광교회파가 있었으며, 이 흐름이 바로 18세기 이야기의 출발점이 됩니다.
질문하겠습니다. 하나님은 이 모든 것에 대해 어떻게 생각하셨나요? 마귀는 이 모든 것에 대해 어떻게 생각했습니까? 나는 악마가 기독교인들이 서로를 죽이는 것을 보고 비웃고 있다는 느낌을 받았습니다. 나는 그들이 서로를 물리적으로 파괴하고 있다는 사실에 그가 매우 기뻐했다는 느낌을 받았습니다. 그러나 관용법이 시행되고 그들이 서로 자유롭게 예배할 수 있도록 허용했을 때 악마는 새로운 전술을 생각해내야 했고 가장 악마적인 전략을 생각해냈습니다. 즉 그리스도인들을 육체적으로 파괴하는 대신 정신적으로 파괴할 무언가를 생각해내겠다는 것이었습니다.




18세기로 가는 다리: 대륙의 기묘한 사상
17세기 말, 대륙에서는 기독교라는 이름으로 매우 이상한 사상들이 생겨났습니다. 스웨덴에는 스베덴보리라는 과학자가 있었고, 그는 놀라운 사상을 만들어 내 그것을 기독교라고 부르며 새 예루살렘 교회와 연결했습니다. 여러분은 그 운동을 만나지 못했을 수도 있지만, 나는 랭커셔에서 그 추종자들을 많이 보았습니다. 대륙에서는 이탈리아 출신의 소치니가 또 다른 사상을 제시했습니다. 성경은 하나님의 말씀이 아니며 유익할 수는 있지만 문자 그대로 하나님의 말씀은 아니고, 예수님도 하나님의 아들이 아니라 우리가 본받아야 할 위대한 하나님의 사람일 뿐이라는 주장이었습니다. 이런 사상들이 영국 해협을 건너오고 있었습니다.
네덜란드의 아르미니우스에게서도 또 다른 사상이 나왔습니다. 그는 칼빈의 가르침에 반대했습니다. 그 뒤로 우리는 칼빈주의와 알미니안주의를 말하게 되었고, 사람들은 이 차이 때문에 거의 서로를 파괴할 정도로 싸웠습니다. 칼빈주의는 하나님의 주권과 뜻을 강조했고, 알미니안주의는 인간의 자유의지를 강조했습니다. 여기에 대륙에서 영국 국교회로 들어온 한 흐름이 있었습니다. 그들은 교회 질서와 예배의 형식, 옛 신앙을 그대로 지키는 일이 그다지 중요하지 않다고 생각했습니다.
17세기 말까지는 교회 질서와 주교, 세례에 관해 의견이 달라도 기독교 신앙과 복음의 본질에는 대체로 동의했습니다. 그러나 이제 교리에서 훨씬 더 자유로워질 수 있고, 옛 복음보다 훨씬 넓은 사고방식을 가질 수 있다고 믿는 흐름이 대륙에서 영국 국교회로 들어왔습니다. 1730년대에 이르자 이 흐름은 영국 국교회를 거의 죽게 하고 영적으로 그 힘과 유산을 빼앗았습니다. 이것이 다음에 다룰 이야기입니다.
제가 이 이야기를 한 것은 여러분에게 역사 교훈을 주기 위해서가 아니라, 여러분이 그 의미를 깨닫기를 바라기 때문입니다. 만약 우리가 1700년에 살고 있었다면 여러분과 저는 오늘 밤 여기서 만날 수 없었을 것입니다. 우리에게는 그렇게 할 자유가 없었기 때문입니다. 여러분은 의회 법률에 따라 정해진 예배 순서를 따라야 했을 것이고, 의회가 정한 엄격한 교회 제도를 따라야 했을 것입니다. 또한 우리가 한 달에 한 번 교회 모임에 모여 주님께서 우리에게 무엇을 하기를 원하시는지 함께 결정하는 자유도 없었을 것입니다. 이제 이 자유는 우리의 것입니다. 그 점에 대해 주님을 찬양합니다.
신약성경이 자유로운 국가에서 자유로운 교회를 요구한다는 것을 본 사람들, 종교는 양심의 문제라는 것을 본 사람들, 이것을 신대륙과 대륙으로 가져간 사람들이 있었습니다. 그러나 무엇보다도 이곳에 남아 감옥에 가고 싸워서, 여러분과 내가 이번 주일 저녁 골드힐침례교회에 와서 양심이 지시하는 대로 하나님을 예배할 수 있게 한 사람들이 있었습니다. 이 자유를 주신 하나님께 감사드립니다. 자유의 대가는 영원한 경계, 곧 늘 깨어 지키는 일입니다. 다른 사람들이 자유를 잃었듯이 우리도 그 자유를 아주 쉽게 다시 잃을 수 있습니다. 그리고 우리는 과거를 되돌아볼 뿐만 아니라, 미래에도 우리가 있어야 할 곳에 우리를 지켜 주실 수 있는 하나님을 찬양해야 합니다.
내가 또 여러분에게 이 이야기를 한 것은, 이 모든 싸움과 어려움에도 불구하고 하나님의 교회는 계속되고 있으며 성령께서 각 세대마다 남녀를 회개시켜 복음을 전하는 빛나는 사람으로 삼으시고 파송하신다는 사실을 말하기 위해서입니다. 이 모든 것에도 불구하고 교회는 여전히 그 자리에 있었습니다. 그리스도인들도, 복음도, 성경도 여전히 그 자리에 있었습니다. 예수께서는 이렇게 말씀하셨습니다. “내가 내 교회를 세우리니 음부의 권세가 이기지 못하리라.”
제3부: 18세기, 콜드 탭과 핫 탭
이 마지막 강의는 사도행전에서 바울과 실라가 데살로니가에서 “세상을 뒤집어 놓았다”는 비난을 받은 이야기로 시작합니다. 베뢰아 사람들은 데살로니가 사람들보다 더 고상하여, 바울이 전한 말이 사실인지 알아보려고 날마다 성경을 살폈습니다. 이어 아테네에서 바울은 아레오바고에 서서 ‘알지 못하는 신’에 대해 설교했고, 그 말을 믿은 사람들 가운데 아레오바고 의회의 구성원인 디오니시우스가 있었습니다. 성경은 또한 다마리라는 별개의 여성이 믿게 되었다고 기록합니다. Pawson이 베뢰아 사람들의 태도를 강조하는 이유는 회중도 그렇게 하기를 바라기 때문입니다. 집에 돌아가 설교자가 말한 내용을 성경으로 확인하고, 성경에 없다면 믿지 마십시오.
그는 18세기가 시작되기 불과 몇 주 전인 1699년 12월에 ‘걸리버 선장’이 릴리퍼트 땅에 난파된 이야기를 꺼냅니다. 걸리버 여행기는 아일랜드인 조너선 스위프트가 쓴 책으로, 그는 영국에서 자리를 잡으려 여러 번 애썼지만 실패하고 결국 더블린에서 정신질환으로 생을 마쳤습니다. 이 책은 동화가 아니라 18세기 초 영국 사회를 향한 신랄한 공격입니다. 몇 년 뒤 로빈슨 크루소도 섬에서 난파되었고, 1715년 영국으로 돌아왔을 때보다 섬에서 훨씬 행복해 보였습니다. 두 책은 Pawson이 교회 이야기로 넘어가기 전에 말하려는 바를 소개합니다. 영국은 산산이 부서지고 있었습니다. 사회적으로 영국은 심각한 상태였습니다. 그렇다면 왜였을까요?
Pawson은 강의 전체를 간단한 이미지로 요약합니다. 18세기 내내 인간은 차가운 수도꼭지를 틀었고, 하나님은 뜨거운 수도꼭지를 틀고 계셨습니다. 차가운 수도꼭지를 트는 사람은 우리가 이성주의라고 부르는 것, 곧 지성과 이성만을 의지합니다. 하나님은 복음주의 부흥이라는 뜨거운 수도꼭지를 트시고 위대한 사람들을 일으켜 복음을 전하게 하며 영국 사회의 온도를 높이셨습니다. 18세기에서 얻을 수 있는 가장 큰 교훈은 이것입니다. 사람이 믿는 것은 그의 행동에 영향을 미칩니다. 마음속 생각은 외적인 삶에도 그대로 드러납니다. “사람이 마음으로 생각하는 그대로 그 사람도 그러하다”는 말이 강의 전체의 본문이 될 것입니다.
강연의 중심 은유
찬물 수도꼭지, 뜨거운 수도꼭지
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찬물 수도꼭지: 합리주의
- 뉴턴·베이컨·데카르트: 고정된 법칙이 지배하는 우주
- 이신론: 하나님이 세상을 만들고 시계처럼 작동하게 둔 채 떠났다
- 위도주의·온건주의·유니테리언주의가 교회 안으로 스며든다
- 사회: 타이번의 교수형, 도박, 값싼 진, 도덕적 타락
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뜨거운 수도꼭지: 복음주의 부흥
- 친첸도르프와 모라비아 형제들 — 독일
- 휫필드와 웨슬리 형제들 — 영국
- 에드워즈·브레이너드·프렐링하이젠 — 북아메리카
- 해리스·롤런즈·그리피스 존스 — 웨일스
팝슨의 논지: 믿음은 행동을 빚는다. 차가운 이성이 행동하시는 하나님에 대한 믿음을 꺼 버리자 사회의 도덕도 함께 식었다. 그러나 바로 그때 하나님은 위원회나 공의회가 아니라 자신이 일으키신 사람들을 통해 “뜨거운 수도꼭지를 틀었다”.

콜드 탭: 과학, 이신론, 그리고 "사회의 입법자"
이것의 일부는 과학의 영향이었습니다. 코페르니쿠스는 행성이 지구가 아니라 태양 주위를 돈다고 말했습니다. 갈릴레오는 망원경으로 이를 확인했습니다. 아이작 뉴턴은 여전히 사과를 통해 중력의 법칙을 발견하고 있었습니다. 하지만 무엇보다도, 프랜시스 베이컨 그리고 데카르트 말했다: 우리가 살고 있는 우주는 어길 수 없는 법칙에 의해 지배됩니다. 사과가 나무에서 떨어지면 반드시 떨어져야 하는데, 그것이 깨지지 않는 중력의 법칙입니다. 이것은 한 번의 일격으로 기적을 일소했고, 성경에서 일어나는 많은 일들을 일소했습니다. 왜냐하면 성경의 많은 부분이 그러한 자연법칙에 어긋나는 것처럼 보이기 때문입니다. 베이컨은 더 나아가 관찰을 통해 증명할 수 있는 것만이 진실이라고 말하면서 그가 얼마나 현대적으로 말하는지, 우리가 그에게 얼마나 많은 빚을 지고 있는지 놀라게 될 것입니다. 관찰을 통해 어떤 것을 과학적으로 증명할 수 없다면 믿을 필요가 없습니다. 권위에 따라 어떤 것도 받아들여서는 안 됩니다. 그것은 당신이 그것을 어떻게 보느냐에 따라 전진할 수도 있고 후퇴할 수도 있는 엄청난 진전이었습니다. 하지만 오늘날 6학년생이 똑같은 말을 하는 것은 놀랍습니다. 증명할 수 없으면 믿을 수 없습니다. 당신이 나에게 하나님을 보여주지 않으면 나는 하나님을 믿을 수 없습니다. 그들은 단지 프란시스 베이컨(Francis Bacon)을 반영하고 있을 뿐입니다. 그리고 솔직히 말해서, 그 생각은 종교를 죽이는 것입니다. 왜냐하면 관찰로 증명할 수 없는 유일한 것은 하나님, 악마, 천사들, 그리고 종교적인 모든 것이 속한 영원한 세계이기 때문입니다.
그러면 하나님은 어디에 속하시나요? 사람들은 18세기에 하나님을 믿지 않았습니까? 아니요. 하지만 그들은 우리가 믿는 믿음에서 전환했습니다. 유신론 우리가 부르는 믿음에 이신론, 무신론으로가는 길에 한 걸음. 유신론은 하나님이 세상을 창조하시고 다스리신다는 믿음이다. 이신론은 하나님이 창조하셨지만 통제할 수 없다는 믿음이다. 무신론은 자신이 창조하지도 않았다는 믿음입니다. 왜냐하면 그것을 창조할 신이 없기 때문입니다. 주교가 제시한 가장 인기 있는 이미지 중 하나는 세상이 거대한 시계와 같다는 것입니다. 일단 마무리하고 나면 더 이상 할 수 있는 일이 없습니다. 단지 자체 법칙에 따라 실행될 뿐입니다. 그래서 그들은 이렇게 말했습니다. 신은 세상을 만들고 마무리하셨지만 이제는 가만히 앉아 계실 수밖에 없습니다. 신이 있지만 그는 아무것도 할 수 없습니다. 그리고 그것은 정말로 죽은 종류의 신입니다. 당신은 아무것도 할 수 없는 하나님께 많이 기도하지 않을 것입니다. 그렇죠? 그리고 이것은 기도를 죽이고, 여전히 모든 것을 통제하고 계시는 살아계신 하나님에 대한 믿음을 죽이는 것이었습니다.
하나님은 멀리 계시고 많은 일을 하실 수 없다는 이런 종류의 생각은 여러 곳에서 다른 이름으로 교회 안으로 스며들었습니다. 영국 교회에서는 그것을 이렇게 불렀습니다. 위도주의; 스코틀랜드 교회에서는 온건주의; 그리고 침례교인들 사이에서는 단일주의, 한 가지 믿음은 하나님이 크리스마스에 "내려오실" 수 없으며 예수는 단순히 위대한 사람이었을 것이라는 믿음이 있기 때문입니다. 그래서 약해진 믿음은 사라지기 시작했습니다. 모든 교단은 이러한 생각으로 인해 어려움을 겪었습니다. 이로 인해 일부 침례교회가 문을 닫았습니다. 예배는 매우 형식적이고 죽은 것이 되었습니다. 당신은 모든 것을 만드신 신에게 경의를 표하기 위해 왔을 뿐, 그가 어떤 일을 해주기를 결코 기대하지 않았습니다. 신은 그럴 수 없었다. 그는 자신이 만든 것 밖에 있었습니다.
발견된 것은 ‘자연의 법칙’만이 아니었습니다. 다른 사상가들은 ‘인간 본성의 법칙’, 곧 사회를 움직이는 법칙도 발견했다고 생각했습니다. 존 로크는 사회를 지배하는 법칙에 관해 썼습니다. 볼테르는 프랑스의 ‘루이 14세 시대’를 다루었습니다. 또 다른 프랑스인 루소는 “인간은 자유롭게 태어났지만 어디에서나 사슬에 묶여 있다”는 유명한 말을 남겼습니다. 이어 스코틀랜드인 애덤 스미스가 등장해 수출입의 균형과 노동 분업을 다룬 방대한 책을 썼습니다. 너무 현대적으로 보여 오늘날의 총리들이 그 책을 읽었는지 궁금할 정도입니다. 그리고 메리 울스턴크래프트는 권리, 여성의 신성한 권리, 여성의 투표권을 옹호하는 책을 썼고 학교 운동장과 남녀공학 같은 구상도 제시했습니다. 당시에는 혁명적인 생각이었습니다. 이들은 모두 사회의 법칙, 인간 본성의 법칙을 찾으려 했습니다. 그러나 모두 같은 결론을 말하고 있었습니다. 사회의 법칙도 자연의 법칙과 마찬가지로 신을 필요로 하지 않는다는 것입니다. 자연계는 신 없이 움직이고, 사회와 인간 본성도 신 없이 작동한다는 뜻입니다. 이런 사상에서 프랑스 혁명 같은 일이 일어났고, 루소는 프랑스 혁명의 아버지로 불렸습니다.
교회는 지성의 무기로 반격을 시도했습니다. 두 명의 주교, 버틀러 주교와 버클리 주교는 하나님에 대한 증거를 지적인 논쟁으로 정리하려고 했습니다. 그러나 사람의 영적 삶을 논쟁만으로 세울 수는 없습니다. 질문과 장벽 일부를 제거할 수는 있어도, 지적인 논쟁만으로 교회를 세울 수는 없습니다.







영국은 표류하고, 미국과 프랑스는 반란을 일으킨다.
제퍼슨은 로크의 철학을 미국 독립선언서에 직접 반영했습니다. 로크의 책을 먼저 읽고 선언서를 읽어 보면 미국이 그 사상을 어디에서 얻었는지 알 수 있습니다. 프랑스에서는 1789년 7월 이 모든 새로운 사상이 프랑스 혁명으로 폭발했습니다. 이성은 여신이 되었고, 파리 노트르담 대성당에서는 이성의 여신을 내세운 의식이 열렸으며 신은 더 이상 없다고 선언했습니다. 이어 공포정치가 시작되었습니다. 나중에 나폴레옹은 로마에 들어가 교황령을 몰수하고 교황을 프랑스로 끌고 갔습니다. 미국에서는 식민지의 반란과 독립선언이, 프랑스에서는 혁명이 일어났지만, 영국에서는 이 사상의 혼란 속에서도 거의 아무 일도 일어나지 않았습니다. 영국은 다른 곳에서 혁명이 일어나는 동안 그저 내리막길로 흘러갔습니다.
그래서 영국은 반란을 일으키기보다 표류했습니다. 사람들은 종교적으로 “열광”이라고 부를 만한 것을 진심으로 싫어했고, 오늘날의 말로 하면 감정주의와 광신을 경계했습니다. 교회에는 감정적 흥분이나 광신 대신 목사의 지적인 설교만 있어야 한다고 여겼습니다. 그러나 흥분도 감정도 없는 종교는 균형 잡힌 종교가 아닙니다. 무기력과 무관심이 신도들에게 스며들었습니다. 한 세기 전에는 사람들이 종교를 위해 싸웠지만, 이제는 의자에 앉아 하품할 뿐이었습니다. 종교는 가난하고 무지하며 환영받지 못하는 노동자들에게 아무것도 제공하지 못하는 상태가 되었습니다.
버틀러 주교는 캔터베리 대주교직을 제안받았지만 “내가 죽어 가는 교회를 구하기에는 너무 늦었습니다. 그 교회는 내 생애 동안 사라질 것입니다”라고 답했다고 합니다. 그것이 당시 교회의 상태였습니다. 영적 상태가 그러하면 도덕적 상태도 더 나빠집니다. 18세기 런던의 오락을 보려면 가족과 함께 타이번(오늘날 마블 아치와 하이드파크 코너 근처)에 가서 공개 교수형을 구경할 수도 있었습니다. 어린이와 여성, 남성 모두 실링이나 그에 해당하는 물건을 훔친 혐의로 교수형에 처해질 수 있었습니다. 다른 오락으로는 투계가 있었고, 런던과 산업 지역의 가장 빠른 길은 값싼 술을 파는 선술집이었습니다. 그 결과 끔찍한 학대와 과음, 폭력이 벌어졌습니다. 이 차갑고 지적인 종교 시대의 영국 사회를 알고 싶다면 필딩의 톰 존스, 호가스의 만화, 갈퀴의 진행, 보스웰의 존슨 전을 읽어 보십시오. 한 현대 작가는 이를 “종교의 부패, 도덕의 방종, 공공 부패, 언어의 모독”이라고 요약했습니다. 18세기 영국은 처음 30~40년 동안 그러한 상태였습니다. 에드워드 기번이 로마 제국 쇠망사를 쓰느라 바빴던 것도 당연합니다. 그는 영국 사회 쇠망사를 쓸 수도 있었을 것입니다.
그렇다면 무엇이 영국의 혁명을 막았습니까? 왜 가난한 사람들은 일어나지 않았습니까? 왜 미국이나 프랑스처럼 사회가 완전히 뒤집히지 않았습니까? 대답: 금세기 동안, 하나님은 수도꼭지를 틀어 놓으셨습니다.




핫 탭: 웨일즈, 미국, 폰 진젠도르프 백작
하나님의 방법은 항상 이렇습니다. 한 인격을 선택하고 그 인격을 그분의 성령으로 채워서 그들이 그렇게 할 수 있도록 하는 것입니다. 이것은 항상 하나님의 방법이었습니다. 하나님께서 위원회나 더 큰 규모의 사람들을 통해 일하시는 경우는 거의 없습니다. 그분의 방법은 항상 일을 할 수 있는 사람들을 키우는 것이며, 그 사람들이 그리스도와의 관계에 남아 있는 한 그들은 항상 그럴 것입니다.
웨일스 사람들에게는 웨일스 역사의 흐름을 바꾼 하웰 해리스, 그리피스 존스, 다니엘 롤랜즈가 있었습니다. 미국에서는 테오도루스 프렐링하이센을 통해 위대한 설교자 조나단 에드워즈가 영향을 받았고, 기도의 사람 데이비드 브레이너드도 일어났습니다. 브레이너드는 원주민 선교사로 갔다가 몇 년 뒤 세상을 떠났지만 미국의 역사에 큰 영향을 주었습니다. Pawson은 18세기 미국에서만 30만 명이 주님께 인도되었다고 말합니다. 인구를 고려하면 매우 큰 수치이며, 세기 말에는 야외 집회도 번성했습니다.
제가 이야기하고 싶은 두 나라는 독일과 영국입니다. 두 나라는 밀접하게 연결되어 있기 때문입니다. 먼저 하나님께서 독일에서 일으키신 폰 진젠도르프 백작을 보겠습니다. (이 찬송가집에도 그의 찬송 몇 곡이 실려 있습니다.) 진젠도르프는 작센에 헤른후트라는 큰 영지를 가지고 있었습니다. 어느 날 보헤미아의 얀 후스 전통을 잇고 주 예수 그리스도를 예배하던 피난민들이 그 땅에 왔습니다. 그들은 조국에서 쫓겨났고, 진젠도르프는 그들에게 땅을 내주어 집을 짓고 함께 그리스도교 공동체를 세우자고 했습니다. 그 결과 모라비아 공동체가 생겼고, 유럽 최초의 실제적인 개신교 선교 단체 가운데 하나가 되었습니다. 이전에도 선교 시도가 있었지만 이 작은 모라비아 공동체는 초기 몇 년 동안 25명 이상의 선교사를 파송해 그리스도의 복음을 땅끝까지 전했습니다.
폰 진젠도르프는 이렇게 말한 적이 있습니다. “나의 열정은 단 하나입니다. 그것은 예수님입니다.” 이 말은 그의 삶을 요약합니다.


조지 휫필드: "모래의 밧줄"
하나님이 처음 손을 얹으신 사람은 옥스퍼드에서 다른 학생들의 구두를 닦으며 학업을 이어 가던 청년이었습니다. 그의 이름은 조지 휫필드였습니다. 하나님은 부지런하고 절제된 그 청년에게 손을 얹으셨습니다. 그러나 하나님은 그에게 “조지 휫필드야, 너는 죄인이며 구원이 필요하다”고 말씀하셨습니다. 깊은 영적 씨름을 거쳐 휫필드는 주 예수 그리스도를 알게 되었고 설교하기 시작했습니다. 회심한 지 1년 뒤, 그는 자신이 어디에서 설교했는지는 잊었지만 첫 본문은 기억한다고 말했습니다. 곧 바울의 고린도후서, “누구든지 그리스도 안에 있으면 새로운 피조물이다”라는 말씀이었습니다. 그는 글로스터에서 이 본문으로 설교했고, 대부분의 청중을 몹시 불쾌하게 할 말을 했습니다. “여러분이 세례를 받았는지는 내 관심사가 아닙니다. 삼위일체의 이름으로 이마에 물을 받았는지도 내 관심사가 아닙니다.” 그는 “여러분은 거듭나야 합니다. 나는 새 생명을 얻었고 여러분도 얻기를 바랍니다”라고 말했습니다. 설교를 마쳤을 때 17명이 거듭났다는 것이 Pawson의 이야기이며, 이것이 시작이었습니다. 휫필드는 곧 한 번에 3만 명과 4만 명 앞에서 설교했습니다. 영국뿐 아니라 스코틀랜드로 가서 에든버러에서도 4만 명에게 설교했고, 대서양을 13번 건너 결국 미국에서 죽었습니다. 그는 갈 수 있는 곳이라면 어디서든 설교했습니다. 조지 휫필드는 영국이 배출한 가장 위대한 하나님의 종 가운데 한 사람이었습니다.
비극은 휫필드가 회심한 사람들을 위한 후속 양육을 조직하지 않았기 때문에 그의 사역 대부분이 죽은 뒤 흩어졌다는 점입니다. 어떤 의미에서는 그에게 교회를 시작하도록 실제로 촉구한 사람이 헌팅던 백작부인이었습니다. 문 위에 “헌팅던 백작부인의 연합”이라고 적힌 교회를 본 적이 있다면, 휫필드를 지지했던 그 여인의 사역을 보고 있는 셈입니다. 휫필드는 죽음을 앞두고 “내 일은 모래로 만든 밧줄과 같아 곧 사라질 것”이라고 말했고, 실제로 그의 이름을 직접 잇는 집단은 거의 남지 않았습니다. 헌팅던 백작부인의 연합과 한두 소그룹을 제외하면 그렇습니다. 그래도 그는 수천 명을 주님께 인도했고, 그들이 사라진 것이 아니라 다른 교회로 들어갔다는 뜻입니다.
생년월일로 따지면 가장 오래된 인물은 아니지만, 공적을 기준으로는 주저 없이 그를 가장 앞자리에 놓는다. 지난 세기의 영적 영웅 가운데 시대가 요구하는 것을 휫필드만큼 빨리 깨달은 사람은 없었다. 오늘날 루터교인과 웨슬리안은 있지만 휫필드주의자는 없다. 지난 세기의 위대한 전도자는 오직 한 가지, 곧 그리스도를 전하기 위해 살았던 단순하고 진실한 사람이었다. — J. C. 라일, 세기 기독교 지도자들(1885)


존 웨슬리: "불타는 것 가운데서 꺼낸 낙인"
제가 여러분에게 말씀드리고 싶은 또 다른 위대한 사람은, 그 사람은 그럴 자격이 있기 때문에 여기서는 시간을 좀 더 갖겠습니다. 존 웨슬리, 나의 위대한 영웅 중 하나입니다. 이야기는 내 아내와 내가 결혼했던 링컨셔의 작은 마을에서 시작됩니다. 엡워스. 우리는 웨슬리 기념교회에서 결혼했습니다. 그리고 그 목사관에서 어떤 일이 일어났고, 새로운 일이 탄생했습니다.
존 웨슬리의 조부모는 독립파였고, 이는 많은 것을 설명해 줍니다. 그러나 부모는 모두 성공회 신자였으며, 작은 마을 엡워스에서 아버지는 목사로, 어머니는 목사의 아내로 살았습니다. 아버지 사무엘 웨슬리는 놀라운 사람이자 시인이었고, 대부분의 시간을 욥에 관한 시를 쓰는 데 보냈지만 큰 인기를 얻지는 못했습니다. 그는 아들들에게 시적 재능을 물려주었습니다. 어머니 수잔나 웨슬리도 놀라운 인물이었습니다. 그녀는 19명의 자녀를 두었고, 아이들이 1살이 된 뒤에는 울지 않도록 훈련했으며 5살이 되면 읽기를 가르쳤습니다. 아이들은 첫 주가 끝날 무렵 창세기을 읽을 수 있었습니다. 현대적인 알파벳 교재나 장난감의 도움도 없던 시대였습니다. 수잔나는 아이 한 명 한 명에게 매주 한 시간을 내어 영적으로 자라도록 도왔습니다. 수잔나 웨슬리의 삶을 공부한다는 것은 감리교의 시작을 공부하는 것과 같습니다.
그녀가 ‘재키’라고 부르던 존이 7살이었을 때 목사관에 불이 났습니다. 사람들은 아이들을 모두 밖으로 데리고 나왔지만 존만 남았습니다. 영화로 이 이야기를 본 사람이라면 2층 창문에 나타난 그의 모습과, 마을 사람들이 그를 구하려고 서로의 등에 올라섰던 극적인 장면을 기억할 것입니다. 어머니는 그를 품에 안고 말했습니다. “불 속에서 꺼낸 낙인이구나.” 그때부터 그녀는 존이 특별한 아들이 될 것이라고 믿었고, 실제로 그렇게 되었습니다.

웨슬리는 차터하우스 학교를 거쳐 옥스퍼드로 진학해 형 찰스와 합류했습니다. 두 사람은 그곳에서 홀리 클럽이라고 부른 모임을 만들었습니다. 이름에서 짐작하듯 다른 학생들은 모두 그 이름을 불쾌하게 여겼습니다. 그들은 새벽 4시에 일어나 기도하고, 낮에는 평범한 학생처럼 공부한 뒤 감옥을 방문하고 병자들을 위한 진료소를 운영했습니다. 그러나 선행으로 자신을 구원하려고 필사적으로 애쓰고 있었습니다. 홀리 클럽의 회원 가운데 한 사람이 조지 휫필드였고, 그곳에서 두 사람의 길이 만났습니다. 이 작은 학생 집단은 선행으로 천국에 가려고 필사적으로 애썼지만 아직 그리스도인이 되는 법을 배우지 못했습니다. 그들은 일어나고 감옥에 가고 이런저런 일을 하는 방식이 너무 체계적이어서 모든 일을 기록했습니다. 그래서 다른 학생들은 더 이상 그들을 홀리 클럽이라고 부르지 않고 감리교인이라는 별명을 붙였습니다. 처음에는 모욕적인 말이었지만 그 별명은 굳어져 오늘날까지 남았습니다.
존 웨슬리는 자신이 아직 하나님을 위해 충분히 일하지 못한다고 느꼈습니다. 아버지와 형이 그랬듯이 그도 사역에 헌신했고, 존과 찰스는 영국 국교회의 사제로 안수받았습니다. 그러나 두 사람은 자신들이 아직 그리스도인이 아니라고 느꼈습니다. 하나님을 위해 충분히 행하지 못하고 있다는 사실을 마음으로 알고 있었기 때문입니다. 그래서 그들은 조지아에서 원주민을 섬기는 선교사로 자원했습니다. 선교사로 가면 구원받을 것이라고 생각한 것입니다. 그들은 자기 영혼을 구원하려고 길을 떠났지만, 그리스도인이 아니어도 그렇게 먼 곳까지 갈 수 있습니다. 그들은 성직자이면서 선교사였지만, 필사적인 노력으로 자기 영혼을 구원하지는 못했습니다.
조지아로 가는 길에 대서양 한가운데서 폭풍이 몰아쳤습니다. 모두가 당황해 배를 가볍게 하려고 물건을 바다에 던졌고 종말이 왔다고 생각했습니다. 그러나 배 한가운데에는 폰 진젠도르프 백작과 교류하던 한후트 출신 모라비아 난민들이 조용히 기도하고 있었습니다. 존 웨슬리가 성직자 복장으로 다가가 “왜 두려워하지 않습니까?”라고 묻자 그들은 “왜 두려워해야 합니까?”라고 답했습니다. 그중 한 사람이 웨슬리에게 “예수님이 당신의 구원자이심을 알고 있습니까?”라고 물었습니다. 웨슬리는 “그분이 세상의 구원자이심은 압니다”라고 대답했습니다. 그러나 “그분이 당신의 구원자이심을 압니까?”라는 질문에는 그렇다고 답했지만, 그날 밤 일기에서 그것은 거짓말이었다고 인정했습니다. 그날 밤 그는 “나는 내 영혼을 구하러 조지아로 가는데, 인디언들의 영혼을 어떻게 구할 수 있겠는가?”라고 일기에 썼습니다. 그는 3년 동안 비참하게 실패한 뒤 런던으로 돌아왔고, 형 찰스도 비슷한 실패를 겪었습니다.
그러나 하나님을 찬양하십시오. 런던에는 그들을 기다리던 사람이 있었습니다. 피터 뵐러(Pawson은 ‘Peter Berler’라고 발음함)라는 또 다른 모라비아인이었습니다. 뵐러는 그들과 이야기를 나누었고, 잊을 수 없는 일요일이 찾아왔습니다. 존 웨슬리는 그날 아침 세인트 폴 대성당에서 예배하며 “너는 하나님의 나라에서 멀지 않다”는 말씀을 읽었습니다. 밤에는 올더스게이트 스트리트의 작은 모라비아인 모임에 참석했습니다(오늘날에는 Barclays 은행이 있지만 그 자리에 명판이 있습니다). 1738년 5월 24일, 사람들은 루터의 로마서 서문을 몇 시간 동안 큰 소리로 읽었습니다. 밤 8시 45분, 웨슬리는 “내 마음이 이상하게 따뜻해지는 것을 느꼈습니다. 나는 그리스도를 신뢰한다고 느꼈습니다. 그분이 나의 죄, 곧 죄와 사망의 법에서 나를 구원하셨다는 확신을 얻었습니다”라고 기록했습니다.
여기에는 실패한 선교사이자 영국 교회의 성임된 사제였던 한 사람이 있었습니다. 그는 다른 사람들을 위해 많은 선한 일을 했지만 자신의 죄가 용서받은 것을 결코 알지 못했습니다. 당신이 자신을 구원하려고 할 때 그런 일이 일어납니다. 왜냐하면 당신은 그리스도께서 하시는 일 대신에 당신이 하는 일을 신뢰하고 있기 때문입니다. 그리고 이것은 그가 결코 배운 적이 없는 한 가지였습니다.

얼마 지나지 않아 그는 진젠도르프를 방문하려고 독일에 갔다가 영어로 번역한 많은 찬송을 가지고 돌아왔습니다. 그러나 그는 복음을 전하고 싶었고, 실제로 전했지만 강단들은 그에게 닫혔습니다. 영국 국교회 건물에서 설교할 때마다 사람들은 “여기가 처음이자 마지막 방문입니다”라고 했습니다. 마침내 그는 전혀 설교할 수 없는 지점에 이르렀습니다. 그러자 조지 휫필드가 “존, 야외에 나가 설교하시겠습니까?”라고 물었습니다. 안수받은 성직자인 웨슬리에게 강단 밖에서 설교하는 일은 두려운 일이었지만, 그리스도께서 산에서 설교하셨다면 자신도 할 수 있다고 생각했습니다. 그는 브리스틀 외곽 킹스우드의 광부들에게 설교했고, 야외 설교를 시작한 때는 1739년 4월이었습니다.
그는 웨즈버리 폭동 때처럼 거리에서 머리채를 잡혀 끌려가는 반대에도 부딪혔습니다. 그러나 50년 동안 성경을 손에 들고 무릎 사이에 말을 끼운 채 말을 타고 25만 마일을 여행했습니다. 마을에 도착하면 십계명부터 시작했습니다. 율법, 곧 모든 사람이 심판받을 율법을 며칠씩 선포하다가 사람들이 불안해하고 괴로워하기 시작하면, 일지에 쓴 것처럼 “하나님의 율법에 하나님의 사랑을 조금 섞기 시작했습니다.” 그리고 조금 더, 또 조금 더 섞어 마침내 하나님의 사랑의 복음을 전했습니다. 웨슬리는 율법을 먼저 선포하지 않고는 하나님의 사랑을 선포할 수 없다는 것을 깨달았습니다. 자신이 비참함을 느껴 본 적 없는 사람에게 구주를 전하는 것은 소용없습니다. “자신의 비탄을 느껴 본 적 없는 사람에게 구주가 무슨 위로를 줄 수 있겠는가?”라는 말이 그의 사역 전체에 적혀 있었습니다.
그의 세 센터는 런던, 브리스톨, 뉴캐슬이었고 그 삼각형 전체에서 웨슬리가 설교한 장소를 찾을 수 있습니다. 그의 마지막 설교는 서리(Surrey)의 레더헤드(Leatherhead)에서 설교되었습니다. 그는 "세계는 나의 본당"이라는 원칙을 설교했으며, 불행한 결혼 생활로 인해 여행에 도움을 받아 계속 움직이게 되었다는 사실이 있을 수 있습니다. 그것은 그의 삶에 드리워진 유일한 그림자였지만, 많은 사람들이 그것에 대해 감사하고 있습니다. 왜냐하면 그것이 그를 계속 여행하게 만들었기 때문입니다. 그는 여행하고 또 여행하고, 설교하고 또 설교했는데, 하루에 일곱 번씩은 정상이었습니다. 그는 설교만 한 것이 아니라 책과 팜플렛을 쓰고 출판했습니다. 그는 학교와 고아원, 진료소를 열었습니다. 그는 오늘날 City Road에 있는 그의 집에서 여전히 볼 수 있는 기계를 사용하여 류머티즘에 전기 치료를 사용한 최초의 사람이었습니다. 그들은 이 기계가 사람을 죽일 만큼 충분한 전기를 생산한다는 사실을 발견했지만 그는 류머티즘에 그것을 사용했습니다. 그는 가장 다재다능한 사람이었지만 분명히 그 모든 일을 스스로 할 수는 없었습니다.
문제는 그와 함께 일할 성직자가 거의 없다는 것이었습니다. 그래서 어머니가 물었습니다. “안수받지 않은 설교자는 어떻겠니?” 웨슬리처럼 모든 곳을 다니지 않고 지역에서 설교하는 평신도 설교자들이었습니다. 최초의 여섯 명으로 이루어진 팀 가운데 한 사람이 존 포슨이었고, 그의 아내 프랜시스 포슨은 당시 감리교를 이끈 여성 가운데 한 사람이었습니다. 우리 집안의 인연도 그때로 거슬러 올라간다고 할 수 있습니다. 웨슬리는 어머니에게 “그런 사람을 백 명만 주시면 그들을 불붙게 하겠습니다”라고 답했고, 실제로 그렇게 했습니다. 그가 죽을 때 그의 여행으로 생겨난 감리교 모임에는 80,000명이 참여하고 있었습니다.
그는 조지 휫필드가 하지 않은 일을 했습니다. 회심한 사람들을 지역 교회가 돌보지 못하자 그들을 작은 친교 모임으로 세우고 이를 ‘교회’가 아니라 감리교 사회라고 불렀습니다. 각 모임을 영적으로 이끌 평신도 지도자도 세웠습니다. 한 지역의 여러 사회를 묶어 순회구라고 부르고, 지역 설교자가 한 달에 한 번 말을 타고 순회하며 각 모임에서 설교하도록 했습니다. 말을 타고 이동해야 했던 당시에는 그 환경에 꼭 맞는 조직이었습니다.
명심하세요, 존 웨슬리는 영국 교회의 성직자였습니다. 그들은 그에 대해 어떻게 생각했습니까? 유감스럽게도 그들은 특히 그가 미국의 목사를 안수할 때 그를 매우 나쁘게 생각했습니다. 비록 그가 영국 국교회를 떠난 적은 없었지만, 그가 죽자마자 감리교 단체는 감리교 교회가 될 것이 분명했습니다. 그리고 그들은 그렇게 했습니다. 그가 죽자마자 분열이 일어났다. 그러나 나는 존 웨슬리가 비난을 받아야 한다고 생각합니다. 적어도 분리를 가져오기 위해 필요한 모든 일을 한 사람이었습니다. 나는 다음과 같은 누군가의 말을 좋아합니다: 존 웨슬리는 배를 젓는 사람과 같았습니다. 그는 영국 교회를 향해 얼굴을 고정했지만, 노를 젓을 때마다 그곳에서 멀어졌습니다. 그것이 바로 그가 한 일입니다. 그래서 우리는 18세기 말에 성공회, 장로교, 회중교, 침례교, 교우들에 더해 매우 큰 감리교 집단이 남아 있습니다. 그리고 세기 말에는 로마 가톨릭교도들도 다시 들어오는 것이 허용되었습니다. 우리는 우리가 살고 있는 그런 그림을 얻기 시작했습니다.


찰스 시므온과 부흥의 다섯 가지 결과
이제 금세기 말의 또 다른 위대한 인물을 살펴보겠습니다. Pawson의 이야기에 따르면 1799년, 젊고 방탕한 학생 찰스 시므온이 케임브리지에 왔습니다. 그는 사냥과 사격과 낚시를 즐기는 쾌활한 청년이었지만, 케임브리지에서 자신의 삶을 마주하고 영적 씨름을 거쳐 용서의 확신을 얻었습니다. 그의 표현을 빌리면 “내 죄를 예수님의 머리 위에 내려놓았습니다.” 그는 곧 사역을 위해 안수받았고, 23살이라는 이른 나이에 성삼위일체 교회의 목사가 되었습니다. 한 달 전 내가 그곳에서 설교할 수 있었던 것은 큰 특권이었습니다. 성구실에는 그의 찻주전자와 우산, 찰스 시므온의 초상이 있습니다. 그가 설교하자 교회는 사람들로 가득 찼고 학생들에게 큰 영향을 끼쳤습니다. 그의 회중에서 나온 젊은이 헨리 마틴은 훗날 페르시아에서 죽은 위대한 선교사 가운데 한 사람이 되었습니다. 찰스 시므온은 이 세기의 위대한 영웅 명단에 반드시 들어가야 합니다.
이제 마지막으로 이로부터 나온 실제적인 사항 중 일부를 나열하겠습니다. 나는 사람들이 말하는 것이 무엇인지 정확히 알고 있으며 여전히 그렇게 말합니다. 이 모든 복음 전파와 찬송의 요점은 무엇입니까? 우리에게 필요한 것은 세상을 더 나은 곳으로 만드는 사람들입니다. 이 모든 뜨거운 복음 전파와 호언장담은 누구에게도 아무런 유익이 되지 않습니다. 18세기가 그것에 대한 거짓말을 제공한다고 말하고 싶습니다. 아주 간단하게 다섯 가지 결과를 알려드리겠습니다.
첫째, 세상은 알아주지 않을지 모르지만 그리스도인들은 그 뒤로 계속 인정해 왔습니다. 그 세기는 노래로 폭발했습니다. 아이작 와츠의 유명한 찬송, 「나의 창조주를 찬양하리라」, 「오 하나님, 지난 시대에 우리의 도움이시여」, 「내가 놀라운 십자가를 바라볼 때」, 「해가 있는 곳 어디서나 예수 다스리시리」를 생각해 보십시오. 필립 도드리지의 「기쁜 소리, 구주 오시네」와 「오 벧엘의 하나님」, 카우퍼의 「하나님은 오묘한 길로 행하시네」와 「피로 가득 찬 샘이 있네」, 뉴턴의 「예수 이름 얼마나 달콤한가」와 「영광스러운 일들이 주께 말해지네」도 있습니다. 무엇보다 찰스 웨슬리가 있습니다. 그는 모든 경우를 위해 6,000편의 찬송을 썼습니다. 말을 타고 쓰다가 집에 도착해 “말하지 말고 빨리 펜과 종이를 주세요”라고 했고, 곧 찬송이 나왔습니다. 그는 영적으로 회심한 지 1년이 되었을 때, 회심 기념일에 모라비아인 피터 뵐러가 “내게 천 개의 언어가 있다면 그리스도를 찬양하고 싶다”고 말한 뒤 「오, 천 개의 혀로 나의 위대한 구속주를 찬양하리」를 썼습니다. 그가 쓴 수천 편 가운데 「천사 찬송하기를」, 「주 사랑하는 자」, 「신성한 사랑, 모든 사랑 뛰어나」, 「예수, 내 영혼의 친구」, 「기뻐하라, 주는 왕」도 기억할 만합니다.
대부분의 찬송가집에서 다른 어떤 작가보다 찰스 웨슬리의 찬송을 많이 찾을 수 있고, 아이작 와츠가 근소한 차이로 뒤를 잇습니다. Pawson이 마지막으로 언급하고 싶어 하는 찬송가 작가는 몽고메리입니다. 그의 찬송 가운데 하나는 그날 성찬식에서 경건한 찬송으로 불렸습니다.
둘째, 주일학교입니다. 주일학교를 시작한 사람이 누구냐고 물으면 아마 글로스터의 로버트 레이크스라고 대답할 것입니다. 그런데 그건 틀렸습니다. 한나 볼은 하이위컴에 살던 감리교 여성으로, 스토큰처치 교회 묘지에 묻혀 있습니다. 그녀는 존 웨슬리와 서신을 주고받았고, 1769년 하이위컴의 사용하지 않는 가구 공장에서 주일학교를 시작했습니다. Pawson은 한나 볼이 로버트 레이크스에게 이 일을 제안했다고 말합니다. 글로스터에는 지금도 로버트 레이크스를 “주일학교의 창시자”라고 기리는 동상이 있지만, 여성의 선구적 역할을 함께 기억해야 공정합니다.
셋째, 사회 정의입니다. 사람들이 회심하자 사회를 바로잡는 일도 시작되었습니다. 가난한 이들을 돕는 구호 활동, 무료 약품을 나누는 약국, 고아원과 학교가 생겨났습니다. 교도소 개혁, 특히 존 하워드의 개혁도 18세기 부흥과 직접 연결됩니다. 무엇보다 뛰어난 예는 노예제도에 맞선 윌리엄 윌버포스의 투쟁입니다. 존 웨슬리가 남긴 마지막 편지도 윌버포스에게 싸움을 완수하라고 격려했습니다. 킹스턴어폰헐에 가면 윌리엄 윌버포스 박물관을 볼 수 있는데, 그 박물관 역시 이 부흥의 유산을 보여 줍니다.
넷째, 좋은 문학이 크게 확산되었습니다. 종교 책자 협회가 직접적인 결과로 세워졌고, 영국 및 외국 성서 공회도 등장했습니다. 위대한 성경 교사 토머스 스콧의 주석도 같은 흐름에서 나왔습니다.
마지막으로 선교 단체들이 시작되었고, 영국이 세계에 선한 영향을 미치기 시작했습니다. 이전에도 선교 시도는 있었지만, 복음주의 부흥과 함께 선교가 본격화된 것은 18세기 말이었습니다. 정확히는 1792년, 케터링에서 침례교선교협회가 결성되었습니다. 이 일을 시작한 사람은 침례교도였고, 노샘프턴 출신의 구두 수선공으로 가죽 자투리로 세계 지도를 만들며 특히 인도를 위해 기도했습니다. 회심한 뒤 노샘프턴셔의 침례교회들에서 설교하도록 격려받은 그는 1792년 케터링에서 다른 이들과 모여 당시로서는 상당한 금액인 13파운드 2실링 6펜스(£13 2s 6d)를 모아 침례교선교협회를 시작했습니다. 이듬해 그들은 인도로 향해 위대한 선교를 시작했습니다. 1795년에는 성공회·회중교회·장로교인들이 함께 런던선교협회(LMS)를 세웠고, 이 협회는 모리슨을 중국으로, 리빙스턴을 아프리카로, 그리고 많은 유명 선교사들을 파송했습니다. 1796년에는 감리교도들이 감리교 총선교회를 세웠고, 1799년에는 성공회가 교회선교협회를 시작했습니다. 같은 시기에 영국 및 외국 성서 공회도 세기말에 등장했습니다. 이는 18세기 복음주의 부흥의 직접적인 결과였습니다. 누가 뜨거운 복음 전파에 결과가 없다고 말하겠습니까? 사람들이 주님을 향해 열정적으로 나아갈 때 세상이 변하지 않는다고 누가 말하겠습니까?
“복음 전파에 열매가 없다고 누가 말하는가?”
부흥의 실천적 결과 다섯 가지
1
찬송
와츠·도드리지·카우퍼·뉴턴, 그리고 찰스 웨슬리의 거의 9,000곡의 찬송
2
주일학교
한나 볼은 로버트 레이크스보다 10년 이상 앞섰다
3
사회적 의로움
감옥 개혁(하워드), 노예제 폐지(윌버포스), 빈민 구호, 고아원
4
문학
종교 소책자 협회, 영국·외국 성서공회
5
선교회
침례교(1792년, 캐리), LMS(1795년), 감리교(1796년), CMS(1799년)








마무리: "다시 해주세요, 주님"
오늘 밤 이 세기 전체에서 끌어내고 싶은 한 가지 교훈은 이것입니다. 사람이 믿는 것은 그의 행동에 영향을 미칩니다. 차가운 지성주의와 나쁜 도덕이 있으면 그에 맞는 삶이 뒤따르고, 뜨거운 복음이 있으면 그에 맞는 삶이 뒤따릅니다. 누군가는 초기 감리교인들을 더러운 쓰레기 더미 위에서 피어난 순결한 설강화에 비유했습니다. 감리교가 술과 도박을 멀리하라고 강조한 이유를 이해하려면, 그 전통이 18세기의 현실에 뿌리내리고 있었고 사람들을 주님께 가까이 이끌기 위해 그 점을 강조해야 했다는 사실을 알아야 합니다. 그들은 이를 위해 싸웠고 영국 사회를 바로잡았습니다.
프랑스의 한 역사가는 프랑스 혁명과 이성의 즉위, 그에 따른 무정부 상태가 왜 영국으로 퍼지지 않았는지 이해하려면 존 웨슬리 목사의 생애를 연구해야 한다고 말했습니다. 놀라운 찬사입니다. 하나님은 인간의 냉담한 이성이 모든 것을 증명하기 전에는 믿을 수 없다고 말하며 종교와 도덕을 죽이려 할 때, 계시를 가리키고 과학으로 증명하거나 반증할 수 없는 지식을 전하는 사람들을 일으키셨습니다. 그들은 초자연적 기적과 삶을 바꾸는 하나님의 개입을 선포했습니다. 자연과 인간의 본성은 맹목적인 법칙만의 지배를 받는 것이 아니라 하나님의 다스림 아래 있으며, 하나님은 그것들을 자신의 영원한 목적을 향해 이끄실 수 있다는 것입니다.
이것이 제가 오늘 밤 여러분에게 전하고 싶었던 메시지입니다. 하나님의 위대한 사람들이 다시 따뜻해졌고, 예수 그리스도의 복음을 이 땅에 가져왔습니다. 그리고 우리는 200년이 넘도록 여전히 그 부흥의 효과로부터 혜택을 받고 있습니다.
마치는 기도입니다. 하나님 아버지, 우리 마음에는 한 가지 기도가 있습니다. 주님, 다시 행해 주십시오. 주님은 여전히 같은 하나님이시며, 오늘 구원하실 능력을 잃지 않으셨습니다. 사회가 쇠퇴하고 우리를 혼란스럽게 하는 일이 사방에 가득하며, 18세기의 부도덕한 문학이 다시 화면을 채우는 듯한 때에 주님, 이 모든 일이 다시 일어나게 해 주십시오. 두려움 없이 그리스도를 전할 사람들을 일으켜 주십시오. 주님을 위해 불타는 남녀의 군대를 일으켜 주십시오. 이 나라가 다시 복음의 메아리로 울리고, 온 세계에 선한 영향을 미치는 모습을 보게 해 주십시오. 하나님, 과거에 큰 복을 주셨지만 우리는 과거에 머물 수 없습니다. 지금 우리 시대와 세대 안에서 우리도 그리스도 예수 안에서 죄의 용서를 발견하고, 다른 사람들에게 용서의 사랑을 전하며 살아가게 해 주십시오. 아멘.
세 세기, 세 번의 강의, 하나의 연속된 이야기였습니다. 교회가 국가와 독일 제후, 취리히 의회와 영국 의회에 의해 장악될 때마다 그 결과는 전쟁과 감옥, 영적 생명의 냉각이었습니다. 그리고 매번 그런 흐름을 거부하는 사람들이 나타났습니다. 재세례파는 자발적인 세례를 믿는다는 이유로 익사했고, 헬위스는 “이단자와 터키인과 유대인”에게도 양심의 자유가 있어야 한다고 왕에게 편지를 썼다는 이유로 뉴게이트 감옥에서 죽었습니다. 버니언은 감옥에서 천로역정을 썼고, 웨슬리는 기존 강단이 자신을 막는 곳마다 복음을 전하려고 25만 마일을 여행했습니다. 18세기가 끝날 무렵, 이 세기의 대가는 성경이 양심의 자유라고 부르는 것, Pawson이 계속 되풀이하듯 한 번 얻었다고 영원히 보장되는 것이 아니라 쉽게 잃을 수 있는 자유였습니다.
제5부에서는 이 시리즈의 이야기를 19세기로 옮겨 갑니다. 19세기에는 웨슬리와 휫필드 이후 퍼진 부흥에서부터 교회를 다음 세기로 이끈 사회적·신학적 격변을 거쳐 20세기까지 살펴보겠습니다.
Note: This piece merges three separate lectures from David Pawson's History of the Church series: the 16th century (54.9 minutes, "Reformers, Romans, and Radicals"), the 17th century (47.7 minutes, England's fight for liberty of worship), and the 18th century (54.9 minutes, the Evangelical Revival). I've folded all three into one essay because they tell a single unbroken story, the cost of state-enforced religion, and the long, hard road back to liberty of conscience. I haven't guessed or embellished any of Pawson's arguments. Wherever I looked something up, checked it against the sources, or corrected a detail, I've left it as an amber margin note woven into the text. The fact-checking this time is heavier than in the first three parts, simply because this stretch of history has more names, dates, and numbers than any other in the series, and it's also the stretch most prone to pulpit legend picking up extra color with each retelling.
From Wittenberg to the Wesleys' parlor
Part 3 closed with Martin Luther standing before the Empire and the Church, declaring "here I stand, I can do no other." But a declaration is not a finished reformation. Pawson opens the next lecture with a question that sounds simple: what is the difference between a Reformation and a Revolution?
The answer lies in two other questions: how much changed, and who changed it. Across the 16th century, Luther's Reformation, as it spread, gradually became a Revolution, because more and more was changed, and more and more different people, in more and more places, took it upon themselves to change it their own way.
The three centuries in this piece tell one continuous story: the Church kept getting "captured" by the state. Kings, parliaments, city councils used worldly power to impose one religion on an entire territory, and the price was always war, prison, or a spiritual life gone cold. These three centuries also tell the story of those who refused to let the state decide their faith, and paid dearly for it.
The Frame For The Whole Lecture
The three R's of the 16th century
Pawson opens by asking: what is the difference between a Reformation and a Revolution? The answer lies in two other questions: how much changed, and who changed it. Luther's Reformation, as it spread, became a Revolution — because more and more was changed, and more and more different people took up the changing.
The Reformers
Luther, Zwingli, Calvin, Knox, Cranmer
Reformed from within, but relied on princes and city councils to impose change on an entire territory — whoever ruled the land decided its religion.
The Romans
Loyola, the Council of Trent, the Inquisition
Did not stand still: the Jesuits, a council that restated doctrine, and a revived Inquisition — three prongs that stopped the Protestant tide after 60 years.
The Radicals
Grebel, Manz, Menno Simons, Hutter
The most radical question of all: who should do the reforming? Answer: not the state. A voluntary church, separate from the state — persecuted by Rome and the Reformers alike.
PHẦN MỘT: THẾ KỶ 16: REFORMERS, ROMANS, RADICALS
Pawson divides the evening into three groups, the "three R's": the Reformers, the Romans (how the Catholic Church reacted), and the Radicals (the group Pawson's own church, Gold Hill, actually descends from). He examines the Reformers in three countries: Germany, Switzerland, then England.
Germany: Martin Luther, and the man who stopped halfway
Who changed Germany? Obviously Martin Luther. How much? Pawson answers: in the first four or five years, a great deal. Luther got rid of the Pope, got rid of bishops, got rid of indulgences, got rid of purgatory, got rid of a host of other things, and reduced the sacraments from seven to two.
Then came the crisis: Luther had to go into hiding at Wartburg Castle. When he came out, he found to his horror that some friends were carrying the change much further and much faster than he'd intended. He stood in his own pulpit and asked: how dare you do this? And from that point, Luther largely stopped changing things. Very few changes came after that.
The result: Luther kept a great deal of what Rome had. He kept candles on the altar, something the Bible certainly doesn't have, but he kept it. He kept crucifixes, go into a Lutheran church and you'll often see one, which may surprise you. He kept images and pictures. And above all, he kept his own traditional practice around the Lord's Supper and baptism: he still believed, in some sense, that the bread and wine actually were the body and blood of Christ, he never quite got over that. And he kept infant baptism. When someone asked, but surely faith is needed for baptism, his reply was: who's to say the baby doesn't have faith?
Kit's note
The unnamed friends at Wartburg have a very specific name: Andreas Karlstadt, Luther's own Wittenberg colleague. In Luther's absence, Karlstadt led a program of iconoclasm, abolished vestments and private confession, and pushed a more radically spiritualized view of the Supper. Luther's return produced eight straight days of preaching, the "Invocavit Sermons" (named for the first Sunday in Lent, March 1522), reasserting a slower, gentler pace of reform. Karlstadt was eventually pushed out of Wittenberg and drifted toward positions close to the Swiss Reformed and even proto-Anabaptist views before dying in Basel in 1541, making him an interesting hinge figure between Pawson's later "Reformers" and "Radicals" categories.
Who carried the change out? Here's a rather startling answer: Luther relied on the princes. In other words, this was a state-driven change. Lutheranism, like Roman Catholicism, was an established religion. From the very beginning, Luther relied on princes, dukes, and the Elector of Saxony, particularly a man called Frederick, to reform "from the top." Whoever ruled the land, Luther regarded as also ruling the church.
The result: at a Diet in Speyer, it was decided that each territory would adopt the religion of its prince. If you lived where the prince was Catholic, you were Catholic. If the prince was Lutheran, you were Lutheran. A group objected violently to this, and it's from that "protest" that the word Protestant was born.
Kit's note
The word "Protestant" actually traces to two Diets of Speyer, not one. The first Diet of Speyer (1526) granted temporary toleration, letting each territory choose its own religion (the principle later Latinized as cuius regio, eius religio). The second Diet of Speyer (1529) reversed that toleration; in response, the Elector of Saxony, the Margrave of Brandenburg, several other princes, and fourteen imperial free cities filed a formal protestatio on 25 April 1529, this document, not a vague "group," is the direct root of "Protestant."
The result of this church-state fusion: by the start of the 17th century, the Catholic states banded together and went to war with the Protestant states, who had also banded together, the famous Thirty Years' War. That's the kind of end product this mistake produces: when the state here says everyone must be this religion, and the state there says everyone must be that religion, sooner or later you get religious war. And the pattern spread from Germany to Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, all adopting Lutheranism as a state religion, binding on every citizen.
Ghi chú của Kit
Số bí tích giảm từ bảy xuống hai là đúng với Luther, nhưng con số bảy không phải là một "phát minh" của riêng Rome mà Luther đang thoát ra. Đó là sự đồng thuận chung của toàn bộ Hội Thánh trước Cải Chánh, cả Đông lẫn Tây (báp-têm, thêm sức, Tiệc Thánh, xưng tội, hôn phối, truyền chức, xức dầu bệnh nhân). Bước chuyển sang chỉ còn hai bí tích của Luther là một sự đoạn tuyệt với toàn bộ Hội Thánh cổ, không chỉ với "Rome."
The debate over the Lord's Supper wasn't only a Western argument. Between roughly 1573 and 1581, Lutheran theologians at Tübingen sent the Greek-translated Augsburg Confession to Patriarch Jeremias II of Constantinople, hoping to find common ground. He replied with three careful theological letters, agreeing on some points but rejecting Luther's core positions on grace, the sacraments, and the Fathers' authority to interpret Scripture, then closed the correspondence with: "Go your own way, and do not send us further letters on doctrine, but only letters written for friendship's sake." The Reformation genuinely reached the East, and was declined, on Orthodoxy's own terms.


Switzerland: Zwingli, who died on the battlefield, and Calvin, who stayed one night and ended up staying twenty years
Luther neither started the Reformation in Switzerland nor helped it, it began entirely on its own. There were two men: a German Swiss, and a Frenchman.
Huldreich Zwingli was an ordinary parish priest of the Catholic Church in a small village in German-speaking Switzerland. He became a Protestant by reading his Greek New Testament, exactly what happened to Martin Luther, in fact a few years before it happened to Luther. Zwingli was invited to be priest at Zurich Cathedral (the Grossmünster). He preached the new truths he'd found in this book, and swept the city of Zurich along with him.
Among the things he taught: it was wrong for the Pope to have an army, staffed with Swiss mercenary troops. (Interestingly, if you visit the Vatican today, you'll still see Swiss Guards protecting it, the very practice Zwingli spoke against.) He gave up his allegiance to the Pope and got married, two things that often seem to go together. Many other priests followed him.
He eventually persuaded the city council, and notice this, that everyone in Zurich must now be Protestant. Once again, the same sad mistake. But it was carried through. Zurich became officially Protestant, as did all the valleys leading out from it. The trouble was that people in the mountains and forests didn't follow. Soon the valley people and the mountain people were fighting each other. A war lasting two years broke out in the Zurich region, and during it, Zwingli himself, who was fighting, was killed at a small place called Kappel.
Kit's note
"A war lasting two years" needs unpacking: there were actually two separate, short Kappel Wars, not one continuous conflict. The First War of Kappel (June 1529) ended almost bloodlessly with a negotiated armistice (sometimes nicknamed the "Kappel Milk Soup" war, the two armies reportedly shared a communal soup at the front line before real fighting began). The Second War of Kappel came two years later, on 11 October 1531: a single battle, over in under an hour, where roughly 2,000 Zurich troops were routed by 7,000–8,000 Catholic-canton troops. Zwingli, serving as army chaplain, died among the roughly 500 Zurich dead. A gruesome detail Pawson leaves out: Zwingli's body was afterward quartered and burned as a heretic's by the victorious Catholic side, a reminder this was fought as personally as it was politically.
Before he died, Zwingli had a major dispute with Luther over the Lord's Supper. Luther said: that bread is the body, that wine is the blood of Christ. Zwingli said: that's just bread, just wine, symbols of his body and blood. And Pawson observes: perhaps that's why the Germans and the Swiss never came together in the Reformation.
The story moves to France. A young man called John Calvin, born in Picardy, the son of a lawyer, was put to the study of law by his father. He studied at the universities of Paris, Orléans, and Bourges, where Calvin got his logical mind. He remained a lawyer to his dying day in his speech, his clarity of thought, and his devastating arguments, it's Calvin's arguments that persuaded so many people to become "Calvinists."
Calvin came to Paris, studied the Greek New Testament, and was converted (around 1532–34). Within months he was imprisoned in Paris for his Christian views. Released, he fled as a refugee, wandering from place to place.
He found himself in the Swiss city of Basel at the age of 26, and decided to write down his Christian beliefs. That book was The Institutes of the Christian Religion, still acclaimed as one of the greatest expositions of the Protestant faith in the world, still sold and read today.
Kit's note
The image of a "26-year-old writing 600 pages in one sitting" conflates two different books. The actual 1536 edition Calvin wrote at 26 was a slim, six-chapter catechetical work, roughly 200–250 pages, loosely modeled on Luther's Large Catechism, nothing like 600 pages. The massive, multi-volume Institutes still read and taught today is the 1559 Latin edition, four books, 79 chapters, the product of five successive revisions across more than two decades, finished when Calvin was nearly 50. The real story is less "a 26-year-old writes a masterwork in one sitting" and more a promising young scholar's first primer, patiently rewritten across a working lifetime.
He advocated church on Sunday morning and playing bowls on Sunday afternoon, he did it himself, and we owe (or blame) Calvin for the "Continental Sunday." But something far deeper mattered more: this man believed God was on the throne. He believed in the sovereignty of God, that God's will is the final factor deciding the history of nations and of men. And it's because of that tremendous logical emphasis on divine sovereignty and the doctrine of predestination that Calvin gave his name to people who think that way: Calvinists. But Calvin believed it, and so did Luther, and so did Zwingli, and so did all the Reformers: that God is on the throne, in absolute control of everything and everyone.
Calvin was still fleeing from place to place as a refugee. One day, trying to get back into France, he found a minor war going on right on his route, so he took a detour and failed to reach his destination by evening. He settled for the night where he found himself, and that place was called Geneva. Because he'd taken that detour and meant to stay one night only, he stayed 20 years, and Geneva became the center of Presbyterianism for the whole world.
Word got around that Calvin, the young author of those books, was in Geneva, and the local parish priest, a man called William Farel, hurried to the inn and said: Calvin, I want you to stay here. He said: a year ago the council decided Geneva should be Protestant. But it hasn't worked out, they're getting as drunk as ever, gambling as much as ever, nothing has changed, the people aren't changing. We need a man like you. Stay. And Calvin agreed.
Kit's note
Farel's appeal was far more forceful than Pawson's gentle dialogue suggests. Tradition (and Calvin's own later words) holds that Farel effectively pronounced a curse on Calvin's planned quiet scholarly life if he refused to help, something like "may God curse your repose... if you refuse to help us in this work of the Lord", which is why Calvin says he was "stricken with terror" into staying. Also: Geneva's council had voted for the Reformation only in May 1536, just months before Calvin's arrival (not "a year ago"), meaning the city's Protestant experiment was even newer and shakier than Pawson's telling implies.
Calvin was fairly strict. He wasn't having any funny business. He would haul a man before the church and hand him to the magistrates for this, that, or the other. But he pulled the city around until it became well-behaved, though "city" here meant a population of just 13,000. With strict discipline, he cleaned the place up, so much so that three years later he had to flee for his life, to Strasbourg. But after he left, the city collapsed; things went from bad to worse. A deputation came asking him back. And back came Calvin, for 20 more years.
He carried the reformation much further this time. No crucifixes. No candles. And, dare he say it, no organs either; people should sing. He carried the changes further than Martin Luther ever did, and instituted what's now known as the Presbyterian system of church government, in which the church is governed by bodies of laymen, pastors, and elders together, with local bodies meeting in representative assemblies overseeing wider areas.
Geneva became a place Protestants fled to for refuge, altogether 6,000 more came to live there, escaping persecution. And naturally, they picked up Calvin's ideas. When it was safe to return home, they carried Calvin's faith and Calvin's way of running a church with them.
Kit's note
The "6,000 more" figure is on the low side. Documented totals run to roughly 8,000 granted residence in Geneva between 1549–1587, with about 3,000 settling permanently; the city's population roughly doubled at the height of the influx, reaching about 25,000 around 1560.
But, worth adding, Calvin made the same mistake in reverse: fusing church and state. Only this time he didn't say the state must govern the church. He said the church must govern the state. If a church member misbehaved, Calvin expected the city's magistrates to deal with him. Once again, church and state were confused. It didn't lead to war in Geneva, though it did elsewhere.
Kit's note
That last line, "though it did elsewhere", is exactly where the sharpest correction belongs. Calvin's real, well-documented failure on religious coercion isn't a war at all, it's the 1553 burning of Michael Servetus in Geneva, for anti-Trinitarian heresy. Calvin acted as a prosecution witness and, to his partial credit, unsuccessfully petitioned for the more merciful method of beheading rather than burning. Roland Bainton's Hunted Heretic (1953) is the standard account. This matters more because Pawson, later in the "Radicals" section, misattributes a different execution to Calvin, Felix Manz's drowning, which happened when Calvin was 17, still a student in France, not yet converted, and had never set foot in Zurich. The two errors compound: Pawson has Calvin drowning an Anabaptist nine years before Calvin ever left France, while omitting the one execution he was actually responsible for.
From Geneva, the influence reached France.




France: the Huguenots, and Scotland: John Knox
The Protestants of France leaned closer to Calvin than to Luther, and became known as the Huguenots. By the end of the French king's reign during which Calvin began his work, there were already some 20,000 Huguenots in France. They grew and grew, until the terrible St. Bartholomew's Day, 24 August 1572. If you know your history, you know that on that day roughly 22,000 French Huguenots were slaughtered, 2,000 in Paris alone. Person after person was put to death across the whole of France. The Huguenots fled, to England, to the Netherlands. If you meet a family with a French-sounding surname, there's a good chance their ancestors came over with that Huguenot flight. Perhaps tonight, in this church, there are families descended from those who fled the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre.
Kit's note
The death toll should be read as an estimate, not a fixed number. The commonly cited modern range is 5,000–30,000 nationwide; partisan contemporary sources varied even more, from 2,000 (a Catholic apologist) to 70,000 (the Huguenot Sully, inflated). Pawson's national figure (22,000) sits within the plausible range but isn't a consensus number; his Paris figure (2,000) is at the low end, modern research using burial records and bodies recovered from the Seine more often cites roughly 3,000 dead in Paris in the first five days alone. Modern historiography also reads the massacre less as a premeditated royal plan than as a sanctioned assassination of Huguenot leadership that spiraled out of control into mob violence, driven by Catherine de' Medici's dynastic fear, not, whatever Pope Gregory XIII's later, controversial celebration of the news implied, a papal order.
But the country most heavily influenced by Geneva was Bonny Old Scotland. I can't go into the whole history of Scotland, much to the disappointment of the Scots, but let me mention four great Scotsmen.
Patrick Hamilton was the Scot who started the Reformation there, but was burned in 1528. His work was taken up by George Wishart, who had been to Switzerland, but he too came to a sticky end. But the man who really finished the job was John Knox.
He's a colorful character: a student at Glasgow University, then chaplain of St. Andrew's Castle for the Scottish army; the French took the castle and sold Knox as a galley slave, there he was, rowing as a slave. The English rescued him; he came to England, then got into trouble with Queen Mary, fled to the Continent, to Geneva and Calvin. Knox was ripe for these ideas, and he came back to Scotland determined: I'm going to make Scotland Presbyterian. He once prayed: "Lord, give me Scotland, or I die."
Kit's note
"Lord, give me Scotland, or I die" is a ubiquitous line in popular retellings of Knox but has no traceable primary source, no letter, sermon transcript, or contemporary eyewitness account carries it verbatim. Treat it as received oral tradition capturing Knox's well-documented zeal, not a sourced quotation.
In 1560, the Scottish Parliament voted for Protestantism. That same year, they held their first General Assembly. But in 1561, the beautiful and wily Mary, Queen of Scots, returned, and with her beauty and guile she won over most of the Protestant nobility. And so Mary Queen of Scots and John Knox stood face to face. It's a most dramatic story, and if you have any feel for history, you should read it. Nevertheless, after a civil war, Mary Queen of Scots was captured, abdicated in favor of her infant son James, and was ultimately beheaded for treason by Elizabeth I of England. Knox's teaching won the ground, and Scotland has been Presbyterian ever since, the Church of Scotland reflects the Church of Geneva, while the Church of England sits closer to the Lutheran churches. The Church of Scotland owes everything to John Knox.
Kit's note
One date needs fixing: Parliament's vote was 1560, not 1559 as Pawson's opening line has it (his very next sentence, "1560: first General Assembly", is correct and quietly self-corrects). The Scottish Reformation Parliament met in Edinburgh from 1 August 1560, approved the Scots Confession on 17 August, and passed the acts abolishing papal jurisdiction and outlawing the Mass on 24 August 1560. One detail that actually strengthens Pawson's own church-state critique: the 1560 acts were technically illegal at the time, Mary of Guise, the regent, had just died in June 1560, and the actual monarch, Mary Queen of Scots, was in France and never ratified them; the Crown only formally ratified them in 1567. Scotland's Reformation began as much as a parliamentary/noble coup as a grassroots movement.
When Knox died, leadership passed to the last great Scot I want to mention: Andrew Melville, who told King James: "Sire, there are two kings and two kingdoms in Scotland. There is King James, of whom I am a loyal subject; and there is the Lord Jesus Christ, King of the church, of whom James himself is a subject."
Kit's note
Melville's actual wording (via Calderwood's History of the Kirk of Scotland, drawing on James Melville's diary) is sharper and opens differently: "Sir, as I have told you before, I must tell you again: you are God's silly vassal. There are two kings and two kingdoms in Scotland: there is Christ Jesus the King of the church, whose subject King James the Sixth is, and of whose kingdom he is not a king, nor a lord, nor a head, but a member." The line most worth restoring is the one Pawson drops, "God's silly vassal", a sharper rebuke than his paraphrase conveys, and arguably an even better illustration of his own point about the church's independence from royal power.



England: a "typical English muddle," Henry VIII to Elizabeth I
Now we come back to our own nation. What happened in England all this time? Pawson says it plainly: the English Reformation was a typical English muddle. It really was a typical compromise, we muddle through and say "that'll do", we don't work by principles, we're terribly pragmatic, we ask does it work, and whatever works is deemed right. This is very English, and the Reformation is quite typical of it.
It started, of course, with Henry VIII and his wanting to marry another woman. But this has been badly misunderstood, let me give the fuller facts. Henry VIII was pressed by others into marrying Catherine of Aragon, and it was an illegal marriage, because she was his brother's widow, so he should never have married her in the first place. But under pressure from various quarters, including the Pope, who granted him special permission to marry illegally, he was pushed into the marriage for political reasons. Every child she bore died, except one, the little girl Mary, who later became the infamous "Bloody Mary." He had no son to carry on the Tudor line, and he knew that when he died, civil war would follow without a male heir. Most people in England at the time took it as a sign of God's judgment on the marriage.
Kit's note
The marriage wasn't really "forced" by contemporaries in the sense implied, it was arranged by Henry's own father, Henry VII, to preserve the Spanish alliance and Catherine's dowry, after his brother Arthur's death in 1502. Because canon law barred marrying a deceased brother's widow, Pope Julius II issued a dispensation in 1503–04, an ordinary (if politically convenient) canonical dispensation, not "special permission to marry illegally." The real ambiguity: Julius II's dispensation hedged on whether Arthur and Catherine's first marriage had been consummated, and that hedge became the crux of Henry's annulment case two decades later.
Then he met Anne Boleyn, a woman he genuinely loved, who might well have made a good queen and a legal wife. (I'm not justifying Henry VIII, I'm giving you the full facts.) He applied to the Pope for an annulment of the first, illegal marriage, but by then politics had shifted, and for political reasons the Pope said no. So Henry VIII said: fine, from now on I don't obey the Pope. Step by step, Henry separated the Church of England from the Pope, as England is separated from the Continent by the English Channel.
Kit's note
It was Pope Clement VII, not Julius II, who refused the annulment, and Catholic historian Eamon Duffy reads that refusal as political capitulation, not principled canon law: Clement was "in the power of Catherine's nephew Charles V, whose armies sacked Rome in 1527... afraid to grant Henry's request." Duffy is sharper still on Henry's supposedly tender conscience over the book of Leviticus, a conveniently timed scruple that erased Mary's own existence as evidence God hadn't cursed the marriage after all.
The most ironic part of the whole story: as a young man, Henry VIII was something of an amateur theologian, he wrote a book against Martin Luther, and the Pope was so pleased he gave him the title "Defender of the Faith", a title our own queen still carries today, stamped on the coins in your pocket. He earned it for attacking Martin Luther. Did you ever know that? What a muddle the English Reformation is.
Kit's note
The irony runs deeper than Pawson tells it, and telling it in full makes his own "typical English muddle" point better than his version does. Pope Leo X did grant Henry the title on 11 October 1521 for his Assertio Septem Sacramentorum against Luther. But when Henry broke with Rome, Pope Paul III revoked it. It was then restored to Henry and his successors, not by the Pope, but by Act of Parliament in 1543, on an entirely different, Crown-derived legal basis. So the title on Elizabeth II's coins today isn't an unbroken line from Leo X, it needed a mid-Reformation legal reboot via Parliament.
Henry married Anne Boleyn mainly because he'd put a friend of his into the Archbishopric of Canterbury, a man called Thomas Cranmer. Cranmer said: I will annul your first marriage, because I'm convinced it was illegal from the start, so I annul it, you may marry Anne Boleyn, and he secretly conducted the wedding. Henry, now head of the church and broken from Rome, was also short of money, so he seized England's wealthy monasteries and sold their lands to individuals, creating, for the first time, England's middle class, with effects on social life ever since.
But the main point is this: Henry VIII never wanted England to go Protestant. He wanted everything to carry on as before, minus the monasteries, whose loyalty to the Pope ran too strong, but with himself as Pope instead. That's basically and simply what he wanted. But he reckoned without several factors.
He reckoned without the fact that this book was being feverishly translated into English by a man called William Tyndale, hounded around England, forced to flee to the Continent, and finally burned at the stake. But Tyndale gave us the English Bible on which every other English revision has been based, and that Bible, during Henry's reign, was placed, one copy, in every church in England, and for the first time people could go and read it. Henry reckoned without that. Do you notice? Every time, it's this book that sets people free. Every time, it's the chance to read it that produces the most extraordinary things.
Henry also reckoned without men like Thomas Cromwell, the minister behind the dissolution of the monasteries, not to be confused with Oliver Cromwell of the next century, sympathetic in his heart to Protestant ideas, as Cranmer was; without the widespread resentment that the Pope still drew money out of England, "Peter's pence" and other "annates," the tributes still paid. But Henry feared the pace of change, and, sadly, executed Catholics and Reformers alike toward the end of his reign, leaving England in a ferment when he died, but leaving the throne to a boy of ten, a very serious little Christian even then, deeply influenced by Cranmer, and sympathetic to England continuing to change.
Kit's note
Pawson calls him "Thomas Cranwell" and pointedly adds "not to be confused with Oliver", he means Thomas Cromwell (c. 1485–1540), Henry VIII's chief minister and the real architect of the monastic dissolution (1536–1541) and the seizure of Church property, entirely distinct from Oliver Cromwell, the 17th-century Parliamentary leader who appears later in this series. Same surname, over a century apart, with no confirmed direct blood relation.
The Typical English Muddle
The Tudor pendulum: four monarchs, four reversals
Henry VIII
1509–1547
Breaks with Rome, keeps old doctrine
Edward VI
1547–1553
Protestantizes: Book of Common Prayer
Mary I
1553–1558
Back to Rome, ~300 martyrs
Elizabeth I
1558–1603
The “halfway house” — Elizabethan Settlement




Edward VI. During this boy king's brief reign, several things happened: clergy were allowed to marry; the Lord's Supper in the Church of England took on a Protestant character, and the altar was called a table; and, more importantly, services were put into English for the first time instead of Latin, and a book was prepared called the Book of Common Prayer, a book for everybody to use, not just a priest who knows Latin up front, but a book so the common people could pray. After its second revision it became the Book of Common Prayer which, largely unchanged, is still the one used in a Church of England service today. We owe that to that boy king, or rather, to his reign.
One rule brought in under this boy king: every priest had to preach at least four times a year. Can you imagine the state of the church, needing a rule to make people preach four times a year? That's a small window into the state of the Church of England at the time. Under Cranmer, they also began drafting Articles of Religion, up to 42, later cut down to 39. During Edward VI's reign, Protestant refugees also returned to England, and to Cambridge, my old university, came a famous professor of theology from Strasbourg, by the name of Martin Busser, teaching Cambridge students the Protestant understanding of the gospel of Christ.
Kit's note
The name is Martin Bucer (1491–1551), Pawson's spoken pronunciation ("Busser") reflects the German, but the standard English spelling is Bucer. He held the Regius Professorship of Divinity at Cambridge from 1549 until his death there in 1551, a genuinely significant continental Reformer (close to both Luther and Calvin) whose brief Cambridge tenure shaped a generation of English Reformers.
Then the boy king died, and the throne passed to his half-sister, daughter of a Spanish mother, Mary. Mary, half Spanish by blood and wholly Spanish in outlook, married Philip of Spain and was determined to bring England back to Rome. 1,200 married clergy were put out of a job. The pendulum swung right back, and during Mary's reign nearly 300 great Christians were put to death, earning her that dreadful nickname: Bloody Mary. She deserved it.
In Oxford, on the main street outside Balliol College, there's a memorial to two men, Latimer and Ridley, burned at the stake during Mary's reign for their Protestant faith. And you'll remember Latimer's words to Ridley: "Be of good comfort, Master Ridley, and play the man; we shall this day light such a candle, by God's grace, in England, as I trust shall never be put out."
Kit's note
Latimer's famous line is close but not exact, and there's a real asterisk over its authenticity. The standard wording from Foxe is: "Be of good comfort, Master Ridley, and play the man; we shall this day light such a candle, by God's grace, in England, as I trust shall never be put out." Pawson's "torch" is his own paraphrase of "candle." More importantly, this line appears only in the 1583 edition of Foxe's Book of Martyrs, not the earlier 1563 edition, raising real doubt about whether it was said verbatim at the stake, or added/embellished two decades later for literary effect. Treat it as beloved and quotable, not iron-clad verbatim history.
During Mary's reign, Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury, under great pressure signed a document recanting the changes he'd made. But you can't change that easily, and in his heart he knew he'd been wrong, and he too soon found himself headed for the stake. When the time came to be tied to it, he publicly declared his utter remorse over recanting his Protestant stand, and thrust the arm that had signed the paper into the flame, watching it burn to a cinder. He said: that hand, which signed such a paper, must be burned first. That was Cranmer, and 300 others. Hooper was burned at Gloucester; many others burned at the stake, the fires of Smithfield, you've heard of them. Four bishops and one archbishop, and many other leading preachers, were put to death during Mary's reign.
Kit's note
The nearly-300 figure and the senior clergy named check out: standard tallies (following Foxe, cross-checked by modern historians) put the number burned at 284, with roughly 30 more dying in prison, totaling near 300–314. Cardinal Reginald Pole, the papal legate, who had earlier had his own mother executed by Henry VIII, formally absolved both Houses of Parliament and brought England back under Rome in a special evening session on 30 November 1554, still called "Reconciliation Day" in older Catholic martyrologies. A striking coincidence: Pole died on the same day as Mary I, 17 November 1558.
You can imagine the sigh of relief when Elizabeth I came to the throne. In the Pope's eyes, and many others', she was an illegitimate child; the Pope held Mary Queen of Scots to be the rightful heir, and there lies the root of the treason charge between Mary Queen of Scots and Elizabeth. But the persecution ended, and refugees came flooding back to England.
It's in Elizabeth I's reign that the typical English muddle we call the Church of England really took shape. Elizabeth liked ornate services, liked vestments, liked ritual, so she was unhappy about letting those things go. She said Edward's second Prayer Book was too Protestant, and had it revised, pulling it back toward Rome. She even stopped the practice of clergy meeting to study the Bible together, something that had been doing a power of good in this land. Yet she couldn't turn the clock back as Mary had tried to, and the Elizabethan Settlement, as it's called, settled for a kind of halfway house. And if you want to know why the Church of England today can hold both evangelicals and Anglo-Catholics, you have to go back to Elizabeth I, because leaving things in a halfway position, imposed by Parliament, threw the door wide open to exactly that kind of mixture.
The Book of Common Prayer remains largely Protestant, not entirely, but largely. And the 39 Articles finally drawn up under Elizabeth's reign are a wonderful statement of Protestant faith. Any clergyman who preaches the 39 Articles is a clergyman preaching the gospel. Sadly, not everyone does, but it's there, in the book, and there's enough Protestantism in it to build a thoroughly evangelical Church of England, but also the possibility of the other, which came later.




Elizabeth died unpopular, though her popularity rebounded when Philip II of Spain, incensed at the execution of Mary Queen of Scots, vowed to invade England by force and bring it back to the Pope. He sent a fleet, the Spanish Armada, 160 ships, 30,000 marine troops, with an army massed on the other side of the Channel ready to cross the moment the invasion began. England was in desperate straits, no allies, and the massed might of Europe seemingly bearing down the Channel.
But England had Sir Francis Drake, and the stories about him you probably know better than I do, how the Armada was routed by superior English seamanship, and how it seemed as if even God fought for England that day, as the winds proved too strong for Spain's unwieldy galleons, wrecking them along the English and Scottish coasts, where wreck-hunters are still searching for them to this day.
Kit's note
Ship and troop counts are inflated. Modern estimates: roughly 124–141 ships (commonly cited around 130) left Lisbon in May 1588, not 160. The troop figures are also conflated: the fleet itself carried roughly 8,000 sailors and 18,000–19,000 soldiers (about 26,000–27,000 total aboard), not 30,000 "marine troops." The figure closer to 30,000 actually belonged to the separate land army the Duke of Parma had massed in Flanders, waiting to cross once the fleet cleared the way, likely the true source of Pawson's "30,000," misapplied to the fleet itself.
Pawson adds a personal detail: a wrecked Spanish galleon off northern Scotland, sailors coming ashore and being called "Saint Clare", marrying local girls and founding the Sinclair clan. His own mother was a Sinclair, so, by his account, he carries Spanish blood from the Armada. (This is purely a family anecdote, not a verified historical event, but a charming detail showing that even Pawson found his own small thread woven into this much larger story.)
Summing up the Reformers: in none of the three places, Germany, Switzerland, England, was the Reformation carried through to a full conclusion, for the same reason: church and state stood too close together. Either the state ran the church, or the church ran the state, and the result was always a religion imposed on an entire region, eventually leading to war. Pawson asks: is there anything more tragic than people fighting wars over religion, in the name of Christ, in the name of Christianity, killing one another?

The Romans: three prongs of the Counter-Reformation
So what were the Romans doing all this time? By 1580, 60 years after Luther, Protestantism had spread through much of Germany, to Denmark, Norway, Sweden, a good deal of Switzerland, a fair bit of France, to England, and by 1580, Ireland and Germany remained Catholic. The odd thing is that all this happened in 60 years, and then for the next 300 years the boundaries stayed almost exactly the same, and largely still are. Why did Protestantism spread so quickly in 60 years, then come to a halt?
The answer: when you study what the Romans were doing, you find a movement called the Counter-Reformation. There had been an attack on Rome that had robbed her of half of Europe, and Rome wasn't going to sit down under that. Three things happened that stemmed the flood.
First: Ignatius Loyola and the Jesuits. Loyola was a Spanish nobleman badly wounded in war, lying with a shattered leg in hospital for months. During that time he had visions and a change of heart religiously, he became a devout Catholic, believing his life's calling was to stop the spread of Protestantism. He believed doing so meant fighting in a very different way than other armies, you might almost call his followers "the Salvation Army of Rome." He went to Paris, gathered around him six noblemen and some noble ladies, and started the Society of Jesus, popularly known as the Jesuits. Loyola's goal was to keep Europe for Rome and stop the Protestant flood, and frankly, he largely achieved it.
He gathered hundreds of people and subjected them to the most rigorous military-style discipline imaginable, set down in a book called the Spiritual Exercises, 25 days of fasting, seeking visions, and much else. By the end you're ready to be a follower of Ignatius Loyola. What's more, they were prepared to use fair means and foul, provided you kept someone for Rome, you could use whatever means you thought necessary, which is why the English word "Jesuitry" carries a negative sense. One of them, Francis Xavier, converted 700,000 people to Rome in India, the East Indies, and Japan.
Kit's note
A few details need precision. Loyola was wounded on 20 May 1521 defending Pamplona against the French, a cannonball broke one leg and shattered the other. His convalescence was mainly at the family castle, not primarily "in hospital," and involved multiple painful surgeries to reset the bone. Denied his usual chivalric romances during recovery, he read a Life of Christ and the lives of the saints instead, that reading, not the visions alone, triggered his conversion. The founding six weren't uniformly noble: on 15 August 1534 he and six companions took vows at Montmartre, Paris, Francis Xavier, Alfonso Salmerón, Diego Laínez, Nicolás Bobadilla, Peter Faber, and Simão Rodrigues, and Peter Faber was a peasant's son from Savoy, not a nobleman. The Society was formally approved by Pope Paul III in 1540. The "Spiritual Exercises" is traditionally a 30-day retreat, not 25. And Francis Xavier's "700,000 converts" is a legendary figure; modern scholarship places his own personal baptisms at roughly 30,000, mostly among the Paravar fishing communities of South India, with only a few hundred to under a thousand documented baptisms in Japan over his roughly two years there. The 700,000 figure likely reflects a much later, looser tally of the broader Jesuit missionary movement Xavier inspired over subsequent decades, retrojected onto Xavier's own ministry.
Second: the Council of Trent. The Pope, recognizing much needed discussion, called a council, the Council of Trent, meeting 25 times between 1545 and 1563. At first the Pope considered inviting the Protestants to sit down and see if the differences could be resolved, but his cardinals persuaded him not to invite them, and they never came. Had they come, history might have been different. But they weren't invited.
Trent declared: Tradition stands alongside Scripture. The Apocrypha must be part of the Bible. Purgatory exists. Indulgences, the invocation of saints, images, and relics are a right and pious practice. And the Pope has absolute authority. This was the first time the Church of Rome had said these things this formally. And, I say frankly but lovingly: not one of those things has changed to this day. And indeed it can't, if you believe councils cannot err, how could these things now be denied? The recent Vatican Council cleaned up and adjusted much, explored much, but not a single thing I've just read out has changed at all. Even when Rome says it will accept the Revised Standard Version of the Bible, it comes with the proviso: provided the Apocrypha is included.
Kit's note
This is where the deepest research yields the most corrections in the whole piece. "Not invited" has it backwards, Protestants really were invited, twice, under a formal safe-conduct. During the council's second period (13th session, 1551–52), Protestants were issued an imperial safe-conduct with a right to be heard (though not to vote). Philip Melanchthon actually set out for Trent in 1552 to represent the Lutherans, getting as far as Nuremberg before Duke Maurice of Saxony's military revolt against Charles V forced the council to suspend and ended the attempt. The truer story: Rome did attempt outreach, but on terms (no voting rights, prior decrees treated as settled) that made real participation structurally difficult, and then the 1552 war overtook the effort entirely.
On "the Pope's absolute authority": this was not defined at Trent, this conflates two councils three centuries apart. Trent reinforced papal authority procedurally (requiring bishops' obedience, papal confirmation of decrees) but did not formally define papal supremacy or infallibility as dogma. That doctrine, papal primacy of jurisdiction and infallibility when speaking ex cathedra, was first formally defined at the First Vatican Council (1869–70), in the constitution Pastor Aeternus, over 300 years after Trent closed. This meaningfully corrects Pawson's "nothing has changed" claim as applied specifically to papal authority, the very doctrine he describes didn't yet fully exist at the point he says it was declared.
Even on indulgences, "nothing has changed" overstates the case: the underlying dogma that indulgences exist hasn't been reversed, but Paul VI's 1967 apostolic constitution Indulgentiarum Doctrina (issued in response to Vatican II) substantially revised the practical theology and application of indulgences, abolishing the old quantified system of "days and years" and re-centering indulgences on charity and contrition. So "unchanged" holds at the level of dogma, not at the level of lived practice.
On the "Apocrypha": what Protestants call this, Catholics call the deuterocanonical books (Tobit, Judith, Wisdom, Sirach, Baruch, 1–2 Maccabees, plus additions to Esther and Daniel). Trent's Fourth Session (8 April 1546) was the first time the Church made the full canon a formal article of faith under anathema, and notably, it passed 24–15 with 16 abstentions, not unanimously. From Rome's side this reaffirmed a canon already attested at the councils of Rome (382), Hippo (393), and Carthage (397), used throughout the medieval Vulgate, not adding new material from nothing. Worth noting: Jerome himself, translating the Vulgate a millennium earlier, had flagged some of these books as of lesser canonical status even while including them, so both sides can claim ancient precedent, a genuinely interesting complication rather than a simple "Rome added books" story.
Third: the Inquisition was revived. Torture, imprisonment, and death were used as instruments against Protestants. They wiped out almost every Protestant in Spain, most Protestants in Italy, and elsewhere like Austria. The result is that to this day, Christians as we understand them remain a tiny minority in those lands.
Kit's note
This is the point where deeper research yields a genuine reversal of Pawson's implicit thesis. The scale and mechanism he suggests, a vast, uniquely brutal killing machine, is largely the "Black Legend" that modern professional historiography, led by Henry Kamen's The Spanish Inquisition: A Historical Revision (Yale University Press), has significantly revised downward using the Inquisition's own surviving case records. Kamen's research finds Spain's heresy executions in this period (roughly 100, 1559–66) were fewer than under Mary Tudor in England in the same decade (about half the number), roughly a third the number executed in France, and roughly a tenth the number executed in the Low Countries over the same years. Per Kamen, the Inquisition's "sinister reputation" owes much to Protestant and Dutch/anti-Habsburg propaganda rather than a uniquely Catholic-Spanish scale of violence. None of this excuses the persecution that did happen, but it reframes 16th-century religious violence as fairly evenly distributed across confessions, Protestant England under Mary, Calvinist Geneva with Servetus, Huguenot France's own retaliatory violence, brutal suppression in both directions in the Low Countries, rather than a uniquely Roman pathology. On this evidence, the violence tracks the fusion of church and state generally, on every side, not any one confession's particular cruelty.
Why The Tide Stopped After 60 Years
The Counter-Reformation's three prongs
By 1580 — 60 years after Luther — Protestantism had spread across much of Germany, Scandinavia, Switzerland, France, and England. Then the line held almost still for the next 300 years. Three things stopped the flood.
The Jesuits
Ignatius of Loyola, 1540
A “Salvation Army of Rome”: severe discipline, a 30-day Spiritual Exercises retreat, willing to use fair means and foul — origin of the negative sense of “Jesuitry.” Francis Xavier reached as far as India and Japan.
The Council of Trent
1545–1563, 25 kỳ họp
Reaffirmed: Scripture AND Tradition, the Apocrypha, Purgatory, and the propriety of indulgences and veneration of images/relics. Protestants were in fact invited (under safe-conduct, 1551–52), but Maurice of Saxony's war cut the attempt short.
The Inquisition
Revived
Torture, imprisonment, and execution used to wipe out nearly all Protestants in Spain and most in Italy. But modern research (Henry Kamen) finds Spain's actual toll lower than the number Mary I executed in England in the very same years.



The Radicals: one sword only, against both
Now the third group, the one I can be briefest about, yet the one I consider most important. They're called the Radicals because they were the extreme left wing of the Reformation. A recent book I've read calls them "the stepchildren of the Reformation." Who were they, and what did they believe? They were the ones who began asking the most fundamental question of all: who should be doing the reforming? Who should be doing the changing? And they reached a momentous conclusion neither Roman nor Reformer had reached yet: the answer, they said, is that it should have nothing to do with the state at all. That church and state are two entirely different bodies and shouldn't stand too close together. These Radicals believed in a free church, not an established one. They weren't even happy with established Protestantism. They said: you can't make people good through government. You can't impose a religion. It must be freely and voluntarily accepted by people themselves. You can't say everyone in England will be Protestant. You can't say everyone in Spain must be Roman. You can only use one sword: the sword of the Spirit, the Word of God. So they were pacifists. They refused to fight in the wars between Protestants and Catholics. They said: we will not fight for the gospel; we shall only use the sword of the Spirit, the Word of God.
This was revolutionary. And they were regarded as dangerous revolutionaries, destroying the very thing that held society together, the idea that church and state belonged to each other. So where did they start? They arose in 1522 in the city of Zurich, Switzerland. They called themselves, significantly, "brethren," and the leaders were two men, Conrad Grebel and Felix Manz. Fine Christians, in the very city where Zwingli was getting the city council to impose Protestantism on everybody. They said: that's not the right way to do it. The only right way is to preach the Word, and when people voluntarily accept it, form them into a church. And so they were fighting for what we now call religious liberty.
Kit's note
The more accurate founding date is 1525, not 1522. The scholarly consensus date for the birth of Swiss Anabaptism (also the movement's own 500th-anniversary year, observed in 2025) is 21 January 1525, when George Blaurock asked Conrad Grebel to baptize him at a gathering in Zollikon, near Zurich, and Blaurock then baptized the others present, the first "re-baptisms," and the movement's founding act. 1522–23 is defensible as when the dissenting Bible-study circle around Grebel and Manz first coalesced and grew dissatisfied with Zwingli's pace, but believer's baptism itself, the practice that gave Anabaptists their name, only began in January 1525, three years later. This matters because it shows the Swiss Brethren emerged directly out of frustration that Zwingli, having gone to the Bible for his own reforms, still let the Zurich city council set the pace and scope of change, exactly the church-state fusion Pawson elsewhere criticizes Zwingli for. Grebel and Manz's break was a direct, principled reaction against Zwingli's own compromise.
The "recent book" Pawson references is almost certainly Leonard Verduin, The Reformers and Their Stepchildren (Eerdmans, 1964), a Reformed-background but pro-Anabaptist history arguing the Radicals were the disowned spiritual children of Luther, Zwingli, and Calvin. And "the extreme left wing of the Reformation" isn't folk phrasing but a citable scholarly term: coined by Yale historian Roland H. Bainton in "The Left Wing of the Reformation," Journal of Religion 21 (1941), later given fuller treatment in George Huntston Williams's landmark The Radical Reformation (1962), the work that coined "Radical Reformation" itself, still the standard scholarly term today.
And now I must tell you something very sad: it wasn't only the Romans who attacked these people, the Reformers did too. There came a day when Martin Luther told the German princes they must use the sword against these Radicals. And there came a day when John Calvin consented to Felix Manz being drowned as an appropriate end for a Baptist, and he was drowned with Calvin's support. Even Zwingli himself, in Zurich, got the council to pass cruel laws against these people. Isn't it interesting? The Romans used the state, so did the Reformers, and both were willing to use the literal sword in the name of Christ. But the Radicals said: we will use no other sword than this one. And so the sword of the Romans and the sword of the Reformers were both turned against them.
Kit's note
This is the single most important correction in the whole piece, independently flagged by every research angle consulted: Felix Manz was drowned in the Limmat river in Zurich on 5 January 1527, executed under a Zurich city council edict passed 7 March 1526, an action driven by Huldrych Zwingli's influence over that council, not John Calvin's. John Calvin was 17 years old in January 1527, still a law student in Orléans/Bourges, France. His own conversion is usually dated c. 1533–34, six to seven years after Manz's death, and he didn't arrive in Geneva until 1536, nine years after the execution. Calvin had no documented connection whatsoever to Zurich, to the Manz case, or to this execution. Zurich and Geneva were different cities, with different magistrates, and, at the relevant date, entirely different reformers.
The likely source of the confusion: Pawson (or his source material) has conflated Manz's drowning with Calvin's real, well-documented complicity in the 1553 burning of Michael Servetus in Geneva (already noted above). Substituting Servetus for Manz keeps Pawson's larger point fully intact and historically accurate: the magisterial Reformers did use lethal force against dissenters, it's just that Zwingli, not Calvin, presided (via the council he'd cultivated) over Europe's first Protestant-on-Protestant execution of a fellow reformer, for the "crime" of re-baptism, Manz drowned with grim, deliberate irony matching the charge ("the third baptism"). Calvin's own real, parallel stain, arguably worse, since he personally approved it and Geneva's council convicted with virtually no theological ally objecting, is Servetus, thirteen years later.
But the story doesn't stop there, Pawson also mentions "some fanatics and extremists like the Thomas Münzer of Zwickau" among the Radicals, though he says closer study shows most of them don't deserve that reputation.
Kit's note
Thomas Müntzer doesn't actually belong in the Anabaptist category at all, and correcting this matters because it reinforces exactly the point Pawson makes a few lines later. Müntzer never practiced or taught believer's (re-)baptism, the defining Anabaptist distinctive Pawson himself uses throughout this section. Mainstream historians (following George Huntston Williams's standard taxonomy) classify him as a Spiritualist/apocalyptic revolutionary: he emphasized direct inner illumination of the Spirit over Scripture, came under the influence of the separate "Zwickau prophets" during his brief posting there, broke decisively with Luther by 1523, and became a leader of the German Peasants' War, captured and executed (beheaded, not burned) after the Battle of Frankenhausen in May 1525, months after, and unconnected to, the Zurich Anabaptists' founding events that same year.
This matters historiographically: 19th- and 20th-century historiography (Marxist historiography especially, via Engels's The Peasant War in Germany) lumped Müntzer, the Zwickau prophets, and the peaceful Swiss/South German Anabaptists together as one undifferentiated "radical" mass. Modern Anabaptist scholarship (following Harold Bender's landmark 1944 address, "The Anabaptist Vision") works hard to separate the pacifist, biblicist Swiss Brethren (Grebel, Manz, Simons, Hutter) from the violent, revolutionary strand, precisely because conflating them was historically used to justify persecuting the peaceful Anabaptists as if they were all violent revolutionaries. This is exactly the charge Pawson spends real energy refuting a few sentences later ("they were accused of being revolutionaries, but so was Jesus Christ... they only fought with the Word"), his own brief Müntzer aside momentarily reintroduces the very conflation his larger argument works to dismantle. Worth noting too (a real, dramatic episode Pawson never mentions, though it fits "extremists" well): the Münster Rebellion (1534–35), where Anabaptist leaders Jan Matthys and Jan van Leiden seized the city of Münster, instituted forced polygamy and communal property, and armed resistance against a besieging army, ending in a massacre, is the actual episode that made "Anabaptist" a byword for dangerous fanaticism across 16th-century Europe, and is precisely the traumatic backdrop against which Menno Simons's peaceful reorganization of the movement (below) makes the most sense.
Menno Simons, if you've ever come across the Mennonites, you owe those great Christians to Menno Simons. Jacob Hutter, if ever you've come across the Hutterites, you owe those to Jacob Hutter. And to my mind, these were the ultimate reformers. It was they who said: we will change everything that is not according to the Word of God, and we will change it ourselves. We will not wait for princes or popes to change it. We will live by the Word of God and follow it, as individuals and as fellowships, to the fullest degree. And this they did.
Kit's note
Both figures deserve fuller biography, and both connect directly to the Münster material above. Menno Simons was a Frisian Catholic priest who left Rome in 1536 (around age 40) after his brother was killed in an Anabaptist stand that ended in bloodshed. His decisive turn was explicitly toward the peaceful, non-resistant wing of Anabaptism, partly as a deliberate corrective response to the disastrous, violent Münster Rebellion that had just discredited the whole movement; his writings explicitly repudiate Münster's violence. Jacob Hutter, a Tyrolean hat-maker turned Anabaptist leader, organized the communal-property branch of Anabaptism (modeled on Acts 2 and 4) among refugees in Moravia between 1533–1535, before being captured, tortured, and burned at the stake in Innsbruck in 1536, the same year Menno left the priesthood. Both threads, peaceful, individual-property Mennonites and peaceful, communal-property Hutterites, survive as living church bodies today, giving real, tangible weight to Pawson's closing claim of direct historical descent from these movements.
We are here today because of those Anabaptists. We are free from an established church because their influence and ideas rose up in England in Elizabeth I's time, in a group called the Independents, who said: we want a free church. Because they couldn't find it in England, they set off for America on the Mayflower, to settle there, for all time, the principle of religious liberty, the individual's freedom to follow whatever faith they feel is right. This is our heritage. And this is what they fought and died for.
Kit's note
This tidy line of descent is compressed, and the real story is richer, with a missing central figure. Historians are genuinely divided on how much direct Anabaptist influence shaped English Separatism versus indigenous Puritan nonconformity. The genuinely documented, direct Anabaptist-to-Baptist contact point differs from what Pawson describes: it's the Separatist congregation of John Smyth and Thomas Helwys, who fled to Amsterdam in 1608, adopted believer's baptism in 1609 in direct contact with the Dutch Mennonites there, and in 1612 Helwys led the return to England to found the first Baptist congregation on English soil, at Spitalfields, a full generation after Elizabeth's death (1603), not during her reign as Pawson's framing implies.
The Mayflower Pilgrims were Separatist Congregationalists, not Baptists, and Plymouth Colony did not establish general religious liberty, it remained a covenanted, religiously exclusive community. The colony that actually pioneered legal religious liberty in America was Roger Williams's Providence/Rhode Island (founded 1636), after Williams, banished from Massachusetts Bay for advocating separation of church and state and freedom of conscience for "Jews, Turks, and infidels" alike, briefly became a Baptist in 1639, founding the first Baptist church in America. Roger Williams is the single most significant missing name in this entire section of Pawson's lecture. His 1644 tract The Bloudy Tenent of Persecution is treated by historians as a direct forerunner of Jefferson's "wall of separation" language, the straighter, better-documented line from Radical Reformation principles to American religious liberty runs through Williams, not directly through the Mayflower Pilgrims. Given that the entire point of this section is to draw a line from the Radicals to American religious liberty, this is a significant and easily fillable gap.
They had some fanatics and extremists like the Thomas Münzer of Zwickau. But by and large, when you study their story, a story only now being properly written, the research only now coming off the press, you find: only now have people begun to see the true place of the Anabaptists. They fought and died for religious liberty, but they only fought with this, they were accused of being revolutionaries, but so was Jesus Christ. And Jesus said: "My kingdom is not of this world; if it were, my servants would fight." And that is precisely what the Anabaptists said.
Next Sunday, God willing, I'll take the story into the 17th century, the age when religious liberty came to England, the age when people began to be allowed to follow their own convictions in this land. The age of William Penn. The age of John Bunyan. And the age of many another great servant of God.
One Sword Against Two
The Radicals: no state protected them, both sides attacked
Grebel and Manz in Zurich (1525) said: the church should use no sword but “the sword of the Spirit” — the Word. Only believers should be baptized. Both Rome and the Reformers regarded this as a mortally dangerous principle.
Rome's sword
The Inquisition, criminal law against heresy
The Reformers' sword
Zwingli: Felix Manz drowned in Zurich, 1527 · Calvin: complicit in burning Servetus, 1553
In the middle: the Anabaptists, using “only one sword” — the Word — and refusing to take up any other, even while under attack from both sides.

PHẦN HAI: THẾ KỶ 17, CUỘC CHIẾN GIÀNH TỰ DO THỜ PHƯỢNG
Pawson's next lecture opens with him reading from a Bible printed in 1607, the old English long-s spelling, a translation heavily indebted to William Tyndale's earlier work, reading Paul’s letter to the Philippians in full, because that letter was written from prison, and the 17th century would produce other great writings from prison too, most famously John Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress.
Kit's note
A Bible dated 1607 in an English pulpit was almost certainly a Geneva Bible, the dominant household and pulpit Bible in England well after 1611 (Shakespeare and the Pilgrims themselves used it), not a unique curiosity. Worth noting: the Geneva Bible's own marginal notes, some justifying resistance to tyrannical kings, were themselves one reason James I wanted a new, note-free translation.
He defines the century plainly: 1600 to 1700. And the difference between the two ends is the whole point of the lecture: in 1600, this congregation would not have been allowed to meet tonight to worship as they are. By 1700, they would. He sets out to show how liberty of worship came to this land, so that for the last 200–300 years people have been able to meet like this, worshipping as they feel they ought, with no one hindering them, dragging them to prison, or executing them for it. And it's in this century that the battle was fought, and finally won.
England, 1600, and the adventure of the King James Bible
The State Of Play In 1600
Three groups of Christians in England
In 1600, this church would not have been allowed to meet as it does tonight. By 1700, it would be. This is the story of how liberty of worship came to England.
Anglicans
Accepted Elizabeth's “halfway house” — a mixture of old Roman practice and Reformation change.
Puritans
Still inside the Church of England, but wanted vestments, crucifixes, and candles gone — plain, Word-centered worship. Represented by Richard Baxter.
Independents
Standing entirely outside the Church of England — also called Separatists or Congregationalists. Slogan: “Reformation without tarrying for any.”
At the century's start there were three groups of professing Christians in England. Officially there were no more Roman Catholics, banned by law; if any remained, they were secret sympathizers. Within the Church of England were two groups: Anglicans, who accepted the compromise Queen Elizabeth had worked out, and Puritans, represented by Richard Baxter, who wanted a much purer Church of England, no vestments, no crucifixes, no candles, plain worship, and above all the Word of God at the center rather than ceremony. Baxter, pastor of the parish of Kidderminster, is a good case in point: besides two or three hours of Sunday teaching, he went house to house, giving each family in his parish its own Bible study, that's the secret of his effect on Kidderminster.
Outside the Church of England was a third group: the Independents, also called Separatists, or "Brownists" (after a man named Brown), or Congregationalists, because they believed each congregation should order its own affairs under the Lord. Their slogan: "Reformation without tarrying for any." Meaning: we're not waiting for Parliament or the Church to change, we're pressing ahead and living by the Bible in our own local congregation right now. The poet John Milton is a good case in point for this Congregationalist strand at the start of the century. Many of them paid for it with their lives, Greenwood and Barrow among them.
Kit's note
"No more Roman Catholics" overstates the erasure. Catholicism survived as a large persecuted minority under escalating penal law (1559 Act of Uniformity fines; the 1570 papal bull Regnans in Excelsis excommunicating Elizabeth; the 1585 Act making seminary priesthood itself treason). Tens of thousands of recusants, plus many more unregistered "church papists" outwardly conforming, existed in 1603, not just "a handful of secret sympathizers." Also worth noting: the Counter-Reformation's missionary counter-offensive, the English College at Douai (founded 1568) trained seminary priests sent back into England after Trent. Edmund Campion, a Jesuit, landed in 1580 and was executed at Tyburn in 1581 for treason (not heresy, English law made "reconciling" subjects to Rome a capital political crime); he was canonized in 1970. And the 1605 Gunpowder Plot, entirely missing from Pawson's account, is arguably the hinge event for Catholics under James I, hardening penal law for the rest of the century.
James VI of Scotland became James I of England. From the start he secretly held to the divine right of kings to rule religion, and the divine right of bishops to rule the church, but he kept that quiet while still only King of Scotland. When he came south, the English expected him to favor the Puritan line. They were quickly shocked. He declared: "presbyteries agree as well with monarchy as God and the devil." His watchword: "no bishop, no king."
In 1604 he called a conference of leading Christians to Hampton Court Palace. There James ridiculed and insulted the Puritans without mercy. You're killjoys, he said, don't like sports on Sundays? I'll make it lawful to have sports and entertainment on Sundays, goading them like that. But there was a Puritan there, a famous Oxford professor named Reynolds, a courteous, saintly gentleman, and all the ridicule and laughter didn't disturb him one bit. He stood his ground. And when James had run out of invective, Dr. Reynolds said: your majesty, I have a suggestion, it's time we had a new English Bible. The suggestion was taken up, almost to James's own surprise, and from the Hampton Court Conference, seven years of hard work followed, producing what we call the King James Version, so named not because he started or carried it out, but because he happened to be king when it was finished and presented to him. We call it the "Authorized Version" because he authorized it. The Bible you've used all your life, used in this country for 350 years, was the result of a Puritan at Hampton Court, born in the year 1611.
That year was momentous for England, something else happened too: the first Baptist church in England was founded in 1611, the same year as the Authorized Version. Sadly, after that conference, James issued a proclamation demanding every clergyman fully conform to the bishops. 1,500 vicars refused to sign, and 300 of them were thrown into jail immediately. It was the first rift in the English church, and from it, vestments and rites and ceremonies, absent since the start of the Reformation, came back, and have stayed ever since.
Kit's note
James's two quoted lines, "presbyteries agree as well with monarchy as God and the devil" and "no bishop, no king", are attested in William Barlow's contemporary published account, The Summe and Substance of the Conference (1604). But Barlow was an episcopal partisan, not a neutral reporter, treat these as period paraphrase captured by a hostile witness rather than a verbatim transcript. Reynolds's actual proposal was narrower and more technical than "let's have a new Bible", he wanted "one only translation... to be authentical and read in church," prompted by inconsistencies among existing English Bibles. About 47 scholars, in six companies, worked from 1604 to 1611.
"1,500 vicars refused, 300 jailed" is the clearest correction needed in this whole section, flagged independently by every research angle. The documented figure for clergy actually deprived under Archbishop Bancroft's 1604 Canons is roughly 80–100 ministers, not 1,500 refusals or 300 immediate imprisonments. Pawson (or his source material) appears to be retrojecting the much larger, better-documented 1662 Great Ejection figures (see below) onto 1604.




The Puritan clergy fled to Ireland, where the archbishop at the time was a man called Ussher, a great one for working out dates. If you've ever seen an Authorized Version with "4004 BC" printed at the head of the book of Genesis, something God never wrote into the Bible, you're looking at what Archbishop Ussher put there, having calculated that Adam was born about 9 a.m. on 21 October that year. One English scholar remarked rather dryly that, being a careful scholar, Ussher wouldn't commit himself more precisely than that.
Kit's note
Ussher's actual published calculation (Annales Veteris Testamenti, 1650) dates the first day of Creation to nightfall preceding 23 October, 4004 BC (proleptic Julian calendar), not 21 October, and Ussher never specified an hour. The famous "9am" detail actually belongs to a different contemporary scholar, John Lightfoot, Vice-Chancellor of Cambridge, who independently calculated Creation at 3929 BC (a different year entirely) and did specify 9am for the creation of man. The two figures were popularly fused into a single "Ussher-Lightfoot chronology", a conflation traceable partly to Andrew Dickson White's 1896 polemic. Pawson's own caveat ("God never wrote this in the Bible") is correct and worth crediting. Ussher was a serious, respected Hebrew and patristic scholar working with the best available method of his era, not a crank; his chronology was mainstream scholarship across confessional lines, staying in Bible margins into the 19th century.
While Ussher was pinning down Adam's birth hour, the entire Orthodox world was operating on a wholly different, much older chronology: the Byzantine "Creation Era," based on the Greek Septuagint rather than the Hebrew Masoretic text, dating Creation to 1 September 5508/5509 BC, over 1,500 years earlier than Ussher. Russia used this dating civilly until Peter the Great's calendar reform in 1700 (the very last year of this century), and Orthodox churches still use it liturgically for Paschal calculations today.
Others who couldn't worship according to conscience fled east, to Holland. There was a group of Independents at a small village called Scrooby, under the faithful pastor John Robinson, meeting as their own congregation. But the local squire brought magistrates to threaten them, and they decided the only way out was to find a boat and cross to Holland. It's a dramatic story: a Dutch boat arranged to meet them near Boston, split into two crossings, one boat with the men, one with the women and children, to avoid detection. The boat with the women and children ran aground in the mud. The men reached the Dutch ship, but then saw English troops appear on shore, firing on the ship, forcing it to pull away, leaving their wives and children behind on the mudflat. Fortunately, a year or two later, the women and children made it out to Holland to reunite with them.
Kit's note
This merges two separate episodes, autumn 1607 and spring 1608. The first attempt (autumn 1607, at Boston itself) was betrayed by the hired shipmaster before anyone boarded; the whole group, men, women, children together, was searched, robbed, and briefly jailed in the Boston Guildhall. The second attempt (spring 1608, near Immingham on the Humber estuary, a different location, not Boston) is where the dramatic scene actually happened: the men boarded a Dutch ship first, armed horsemen appeared on shore, and the captain fled with the men aboard before the women and children (delayed by a grounded barge) could board. The women and children were arrested and shuttled among reluctant magistrates, following in small groups over the following months, not "a year or two later." The primary source is William Bradford's own eyewitness account in Of Plymouth Plantation. The guiding figures at this stage were as much William Brewster and Richard Clyfton as Robinson. Robinson only became pastor once they'd settled at Leiden, and he himself never sailed on the Mayflower. He stayed as pastor of the Leiden congregation and died there in 1625, always intending to follow. "Pilgrim Fathers" is itself an anachronistic label, popularized in the 18th–19th centuries, not a name the Separatists used of themselves.
But something was happening in Amsterdam: a group of Christians began studying the question of baptism. Until then, all the Reformers practiced infant baptism as it had been practiced for centuries. But in Amsterdam, a group under a man called Helwis began to look at this, reaching the conclusion that baptism should be for believers only. Having no one qualified to baptize them, two of them agreed: I'll baptize you if you baptize me. Then, unable to find work, they risked returning to London, and in 1611, at Spitalfields, London, the first Baptist church in England was founded.
Kit's note
This mixes up both the person and the date. It was John Smyth, Helwys's own pastor, who performed "se-baptism" (pouring water on his own head, then baptizing roughly 40 others including Helwys), not a mutual pair baptizing each other. Smyth then had second thoughts about his own self-baptism's validity and sought union with the Dutch Waterlander Mennonites; Helwys rejected this and broke away, leading the group back to England. Smyth stayed in Amsterdam and died there in 1612, never returning. On the date: Helwys and about a dozen others founded the church at White's Alley, Spitalfields, in 1612, not 1611. That earlier year is the date of an earlier confession of faith Helwys drafted while still in Amsterdam, a likely source of the conflation.
One strong, currently missing piece of the story, genuinely important to the whole lecture's "religious liberty" thesis: in 1612, Helwys personally sent King James a copy of his tract A Short Declaration of the Mystery of Iniquity, widely regarded as the first English-language argument for full, unqualified religious liberty extending even to non-Christians, with a handwritten inscription. He was imprisoned in Newgate for it and died there around 1616. This predates Roger Williams's more famous religious-liberty writings in New England by over two decades, and is arguably the true theological headwater of the "free church in a free state" principle Pawson credits broadly to the Pilgrims and Baptists at the close of the lecture.
The king is a mortal man, and not God, therefore hath no power over the mortal soul of his subjects, to make laws and ordinances for them, and to set spiritual Lords over them... Men's religion to God is between God and themselves; the king shall not answer for it... Let them be heretics, Turks, Jews, or whatsoever, it appertains not to the earthly power to punish them in the least measure. Thomas Helwys, "A Short Declaration of the Mystery of Iniquity" (1612)


The Mayflower, and Charles I: eleven years without a Parliament
Another group of Independents still in the Low Countries realized staying in Europe was simply impractical, unwelcome, no jobs, going hungry. They decided to do something tremendous: come back to England, get hold of a ship, and go to the New World, trying to build in America a free world where people could worship without the state dictating how. They came back and persuaded the owner of the Mayflower to take them, and were called the Pilgrim Fathers. They left Plymouth in 1620, landing at Plymouth in the New World that December. But what a hard experience awaited them, in the first winter, 50% died, from lack of food, cold, lack of medical care. Yet they stayed, and even though they had battles with established Anglican settlements there, the Pilgrim Fathers began something that means America today is entirely free of any state-church relationship, where anybody may worship as they feel they ought.
Kit's note
The 44% death toll (45 of 102 passengers) that winter of 1620–21 is accurate, and Pawson's "50%" is a fair rounding, adult women were hit hardest, 13 of 18 dying. But worth noting: only about 40 of the 102 Mayflower passengers were actual Leiden Separatists ("Saints"); the rest were other settlers recruited by the financial backers ("Strangers"), which complicates the tidy "Pilgrim Fathers" narrative. As for the Mayflower Barn timbers at Jordans (the Quaker meeting house near Pawson's own church) being "almost certainly" from the actual ship, that's local legend, not established fact. It traces to biblical scholar J. Rendel Harris's 1920 book, based on oral folklore and a cracked, metal-braced roof beam he linked to a beam reportedly cracked during the Atlantic crossing. No documentary evidence ties the barn's timbers to the actual ship; maritime and timber historians treat the claim as "neither proven nor disproven." Best read as a cherished local legend, not settled history.
So under James, some went to Ireland, some to Holland, but in England you had to conform. He was succeeded by Charles I, who was worse than his father. He too believed in the divine right of kings and bishops, and went much further: throwing Puritans into prison, heavy fines, the pillory, cropped ears, slit noses, all this happened under Charles I. The Archbishop of Canterbury at the time, William Laud, helped Charles I "turn the clock back": the communion table in parish churches was again called the "altar," and people were made to bow to it. Parliament objected, and Charles I simply did without Parliament for eleven years. Can you imagine a king or queen today doing that? I can imagine a Parliament doing without a king or queen for eleven years, but I can't imagine a king saying, no more Parliament.
15,000 Londoners marched on the palace and presented King Charles I with the "Root and Branch Petition", if you've ever heard the phrase "root and branch," this is where it comes from, wanting all "Romish superstition" rooted out. Charles I refused to listen, and within a short time England was at civil war, breaking out in 1642. Parliament fought the king, and it was a religious issue: by and large, the Anglicans fought with the king, the Puritans with Parliament; by and large the north and west were in the king's hands, the south and east in Parliament's, which is why, if you study free churches today, you'll find they still follow that pattern.
One of the greatest fighters for Parliament was John Hampden, there's a statue of him in Aylesbury's market square. Sadly, that leader was killed very early in the war, and Parliament began to lose. They were waiting for a leader, and that leader came in Oliver Cromwell. Cromwell blended them into the New Model Army, under the famous catchphrase: "Trust in God and keep your powder dry." He put new morale into the troops fighting for religious liberty in this land.
Kit's note
The Root and Branch Petition was presented to the Long Parliament on 11 December 1640, signed by roughly 15,000 Londoners, delivered by a crowd of about 1,500, not a direct confrontation with the king at his palace, as Pawson's telling suggests. And John Hampden, not "Hampton," Pawson's small slip, was killed at the Battle of Chalgrove Field, June 1643 (dying of his wounds a few days later), "very early in the war" is fair. Cromwell's most famous quoted line, "Trust in God and keep your powder dry", is almost certainly apocryphal. Its first known appearance in print is an 1834 poem, "Oliver's Advice" by William Blacker, retroactively putting the line in Cromwell's mouth. No 17th-century source records it, despite Cromwell's extensive surviving correspondence and speeches. A textbook case of how a great man's "immortal" one-liner can be born long after he's dead.
During this civil war, at Westminster, a group of clergymen and scholars from Oxford and Cambridge met to try to work out a pattern of church life everyone could accept, the Westminster Assembly of Divines, with a few Scots invited to attend, whose influence, as Scots often do, ran deep. They produced a statement of faith called the Westminster Confession, and to this day it remains the confession not only of the Scots but of most Presbyterians worldwide. You could probably quote one line from it: what is the chief end of man? The chief end of man is to glorify God, and enjoy him forever. Have you heard those words? That was decided at Westminster, during the civil war. But it wasn't generally accepted, the Scots accepted it, the English never did.
Kit's note
The Assembly sat at Westminster Abbey from 1643–1653 (main work substantially done by 1649), summoned by the Long Parliament, not the king, itself a marker of the Civil War's constitutional stakes: Parliament unilaterally remaking church government. Roughly six Scottish commissioners (including Alexander Henderson and Samuel Rutherford) attended as advisors under the Solemn League and Covenant (1643), which bound England to move toward Presbyterian church government in exchange for Scottish military help against the king, explaining Pawson's aside about Scottish influence precisely. The Confession was formally adopted by the Church of Scotland General Assembly in 1647 and remains its subordinate standard. Never adopted by the Church of England (which reverted to the Thirty-Nine Articles at the Restoration), though English Congregationalists (the Savoy Declaration, 1658) and Particular Baptists (the Second London Confession, 1689) both produced doctrinally similar adaptations, tying directly back to the Baptist thread from earlier.
Charles I was still around, but was finally brought to London to be beheaded. He was held for a few weeks, or was it days?, in the manor house at Stoke Poges. If you ever get the chance, go there, go into the manor house, and above the fireplace, painted on the plaster wall, is the royal coat of arms of Charles I. To while away the hours and keep his mind off his execution, he painted his own royal coat of arms on the plaster. They've covered it with glass now, but you can still go into the main room at Stoke Poges and see it, before Charles I was beheaded in Whitehall in 1649.
Kit's note
The core fact, Charles I beheaded outside the Banqueting House, Whitehall, on 30 January 1649, is entirely correct. The Stoke Poges detention/painting anecdote reads more as local legend than verified history, a charming, unconfirmed story, not settled fact.
One Century, Six Reigns
The Stuart monarchs and their religious policy
James I
1603–1625
“No bishop, no king” — pressured the Puritans, yet produced the KJV Bible (1611)
Charles I
1625–1649
With Laud, pushed ceremony further; ruled without Parliament for 11 years; Civil War; executed
Commonwealth
1649–1660
Cromwell; Presbyterians then Independents in control — “new Presbyter was but old priest writ large”
Charles II
1660–1685
Restoration; the Great Ejection of 1662; secretly sympathetic to Catholicism
James II
1685–1688
Openly Catholic, determined to bring England back to Rome; overthrown
William & Mary
1689–
The Toleration Act — an era of stability and tolerance (Catholics excepted) begins







Bunyan, "New Presbyter is but Old Priest writ large," and the reign of Charles II
Among the soldiers who fought with Oliver Cromwell was a young man, hard-drinking, hard-fighting, hard-swearing, born at a little village called Elstow, just outside Bedford. His name was John Bunyan. (More about him shortly.)
After the civil war, the Presbyterians got control of the Church of England and tried to make everybody Presbyterian. Isn't it funny, when the Anglicans are in control, everybody must be Anglican; when the Presbyterians get it, everybody must be Presbyterian. Which caused someone to say: "New Presbyter is but Old Priest writ large." In other words, we've just traded one tyranny for another.
Kit's note
That line is the closing line of John Milton's sonnet, "On the New Forcers of Conscience under the Long Parliament" (c. 1646), worth naming, since Milton was already introduced earlier as a case-in-point Congregationalist, tying the quote to him strengthens continuity. Worth noting: Milton wrote it before the Presbyterians had actually reached the full ascendancy Pawson describes, it was a specific polemical jab, from a radical Independent's viewpoint, at Parliament's Presbyterian majority trying to impose a coercive national church with power to excommunicate, not a detached general verdict, though it has become exactly the kind of proverbial one-liner Pawson uses it as. By the 1650s Milton had moved decisively away from both Presbyterian and conventional Independent church order, toward radical individual liberty of conscience, opposing a coercive state church of any stripe, and seems to have worshipped largely outside any organized congregation by the end of his life.
Finally we come to the reign of Charles II, a man about whom one could hardly say things bad enough, for his lack of principle and profligacy. The Scots accepted him first, crowning him at Scone, thinking he'd fight with the Scots and the English Parliament for Presbyterianism, for a purer Puritan Church. The Scots soon regretted their folly. I can't go into the story of the Covenanters, only to say that 17,000 Scottish Covenanters, meeting in secret in the highlands to worship as they felt they ought, suffered under Charles II.
Kit's note
The commonly cited figure (closer to 18,000, per 19th-century martyrologist John Howie's Scots Worthies) is actually a composite across roughly 27 years and multiple categories of suffering, about 1,700 banished to America, 750 to the northern Scottish islands, 3,600 imprisoned or outlawed, 680 killed in battle, 7,000 who fled Scotland, 362 legally executed, 498 killed extrajudicially, not 17,000–18,000 people executed, and not confined to "meeting in secret" alone. Modern historians regard Howie's totals as inflated devotional/commemorative numbers rather than verified statistics. Geography needs correcting too: the worst violence (the "Killing Time," 1679–1688) was concentrated in the southwest Lowlands (Ayrshire, Galloway, Dumfriesshire), not the Highlands, which were largely Episcopalian or Catholic clan territory.
Charles II was secretly sympathetic to the Roman Catholic Church, and his ambition, through intrigue, was to bring England back to it. He made a secret treaty with Louis XIV of France to turn the clock back 200 years, to the pre-Reformation days. How did he do it? From 1661, a series of Acts of Parliament turned the clock back. 1662 was the worst, the Act of Uniformity. Not Roman yet, but Anglican, with Charles II and Parliament saying: everybody must be this. In that very year, 1662, nearly 2,000 clergymen left their livings, out into the unknown, with no home or job or anything else, because they refused to conform to the Act of Uniformity. And into the English language came a new word: "nonconformist", and at first, it was a criminal word. One of those turned out at the time was dear old Richard Baxter.
In 1665, another Act came, because these ejected clergymen kept creeping back secretly to meet their old congregations, Parliament passed an Act that no clergyman was allowed within five miles of his former church, called the Five Mile Act. Here's an interesting detail: if you go to Wendover, you'll see the Baptist Church on the right-hand side of the road, a good five minutes' walk outside the village, and you may have wondered why build a church outside a village. The answer is simple: in 1662, the Vicar of Aylesbury was turned out for refusing to conform, but kept creeping back into Aylesbury, holding meetings in kitchens and gardens. Then the Five Mile Act came out. Do you know what he did? He stood in the middle of Aylesbury and started walking out five miles, pacing it out, and five miles brought him to a field, where he started meeting. People walked five miles from Aylesbury, and they put up a place of worship, which is now the Baptist Church of Wendover, exactly five miles out.
In 1673 came the notorious Test Act, Parliament saying there must be neither Roman Catholics nor nonconformists in England, everybody must worship this way. This caused a great deal of suffering for conscience's sake.
Kit's note
"Nearly 2,000" is the most commonly cited traditional figure, but the true range is genuinely contested among historians: contemporary Nonconformist chronicler Edmund Calamy counted 1,897; his 20th-century editor A. G. Matthews (Calamy Revised, 1934), after removing 47 already-dead entries, 41 duplicates, and 113 unsupported records, arrived at a more conservative verified 936, though other tallies (combining earlier 1660–62 removals) reach 1,760–1,800, about 20% of all beneficed clergy. "Nearly 2,000" is defensible as the traditional figure but sits at the high end of a genuinely contested range.
The 1673 Test Act didn't decree a blanket ban on Roman Catholics and nonconformists being present in England at all. Its actual target was narrower and more specific: it required anyone holding civil or military office under the Crown to take Anglican communion, swear oaths of allegiance, and formally deny transubstantiation, barring Catholics (and, as a side effect, Dissenters unwilling to take Anglican communion) from public office, not from residing in or worshipping in England. Its most famous immediate casualty: James, Duke of York (the future James II), who resigned as Lord High Admiral in 1673 rather than take the sacrament, the first public confirmation of his Catholicism.
One strong thread missing here: downstream of the Test Act sits the 1678–81 Popish Plot, Titus Oates's fabricated conspiracy, which saw more than 15 Catholics executed on perjured testimony, including Archbishop Oliver Plunkett of Armagh (canonized 1975), the darkest, most dramatic Catholic-persecution episode of the century, and worth including for how it sharpens the "everyone was persecuting everyone" texture of the reign. Worth noting too: Charles II's own Catholicism was never publicly acted on in his lifetime, he received Catholic last rites only on his deathbed, February 1685, from Fr. John Huddleston, smuggled in by his brother James, decades of concealment resolved only at the very end.
From Persecution To Toleration
Four acts, nearly thirty years
1662
Act of Uniformity
The Great Ejection — hundreds to nearly 2,000 ministers lost their livings for refusing to conform.
1665
Five Mile Act
Ejected ministers barred within five miles of their former parish.
1673
Test Act
Barred Catholics and Dissenters from civil/military office — not from residing in England.
1689
Toleration Act
Dissenters allowed to worship openly — Catholics excluded, waiting another 89–140 years.


John Bunyan, George Fox, and William Penn: prisoners of conscience
It was during this period that John Bunyan, now older, converted, converted through overhearing some housewives gossiping in a backyard, became a preacher at Bedford. (Housewives, if you gossip in a backyard, bear in mind: you might produce another John Bunyan, if you're gossiping about the right things, because this hard-drinking, hard-swearing, hard-fighting young man overheard some housewives talking about Jesus in a backyard, and had never heard anything so sweet, and it convicted him of his sin.) He was converted, became a preacher at Bedford, was baptized as a believer, and preached the gospel wherever he could.
John Bunyan was thrown into prison under Charles II, twelve years, with only one break in between, separated from his blind wife and struggling children. But one day in jail he had a dream: he saw a man with a burden on his back, and a man who wanted to be rid of it. He began writing the dream down, and that dream is Pilgrim's Progress. I hope you've read the whole book, in the adult version, not the children's version, the adult version shows you not just what happened to Pilgrim, but what he thought and what he said. And I hope too that someday you'll read another important book by Bunyan, Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners, describing his conversion and how he became the preacher he was. I suppose Pilgrim's Progress is the best-known Christian book next to the Bible. He never mentioned the church in it. He never mentioned the sacraments in it. And so it was accepted by Christians of every churchmanship, and to this day has one of the widest appeals of any book ever written in the Christian world.
He died in 1688, buried at Bunhill Fields, which I visited recently. By the end of his life, people called him "Bishop Bunyan", though the one thing he never wanted to be was a bishop. But as he traveled around, as people came to him for help, they said: you have as much right to be called a bishop as those who are. So we're going to call you that. Hence, Bishop Bunyan.
Kit's note
The whole frame, arrested 12 November 1660 preaching at Lower Samsell, Bedfordshire; tried at Bedford Quarter Sessions in January 1661; held mainly in Bedford County Gaol until release under Charles II's Declaration of Indulgence, March–May 1672, roughly twelve years, with one roughly six-week release around 1666 before rearrest, matches Pawson's telling exactly. Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners (1666) and the "Bishop Bunyan" nickname (from his post-1672 itinerant pastoral influence across Bedfordshire, Hertfordshire, Cambridgeshire, Surrey, London) are both accurate. The famous dream, a man fleeing the City of Destruction with a burden on his back, the framing device of Pilgrim's Progress, is generally dated by scholars to a brief second, shorter imprisonment (1676–77) under the Conventicle Act, not the long main term of 1660–72 as Pawson's telling implies. Most of the writing likely happened across the long imprisonment, but the dream-vision itself more likely belongs to the later, shorter stay.
Bunyan's story has an almost exact chronological and thematic mirror on the opposite side of the Christian world, entirely absent from Pawson's account. Patriarch Nikon's liturgical reforms (from 1652) split the Russian Church; the Great Moscow Synod of 1666–67 ratified the reforms and anathematized the old rites, birthing the "Old Believer" schism. Its central figure, Archpriest Avvakum, was imprisoned over a decade, during which he wrote The Life of Archpriest Avvakum, by Himself (1672–75), a prison-written spiritual autobiography of conversion and suffering that Slavists routinely compare to Bunyan's Grace Abounding. Avvakum was burned alive with three companions on 14 April 1682, six years before Bunyan's natural death in 1688. Same century, same theme, state-enforced liturgical uniformity, a prison-written spiritual classic, a movement's founding martyr, at opposite ends of Christendom.

A very different kind of character also suffered during this time: a man called George Fox, who had a very deep spiritual experience in the year 1646. There was something very good about that experience, and something not so good. George Fox discovered, or rather, rediscovered, the power of the Holy Spirit to guide into all truth. He called this experience the "inner light," and he said: it's no use just having Scripture outside you, or even in your head, you need the Holy Spirit inside you too. That was something that needed rediscovering, needed saying. You can have Scripture off pat, but without the Holy Spirit it's dead, not alive.
But, sadly, having rediscovered something good, he then went one step further and said something not so good: that the sure word of prophecy we need today is not the Scriptures but the Holy Spirit alone. From that statement comes the greatest weakness of the movement that followed. He gathered around him a group of like-minded people, called the Society of Friends; others nicknamed them Quakers, because they quaked and trembled before God in their meetings. This has been both their strength and their weakness ever since, their strength, that they believe God can speak inwardly through the Holy Spirit; their weakness, that they reject the sacraments the Lord Jesus meant them to have, being outward things, and also tend to disregard Scripture, relying entirely on inner thoughts.
George Fox was imprisoned for saying that, and at one time there were 4,000 Quakers in prison under the reign of Charles II. If you can imagine what proportion that was, you can understand their suffering, especially when you consider that in prison you got no food unless friends brought it to you, and if all the Quakers were in prison, there'd be nobody left to bring them food.
A young aristocrat said: we will never get freedom in England to worship as we ought, we must go to the New World. His name was William Penn, and Penn lies buried not a mile from this spot, with his family, in the quiet little burial ground of Jordans meeting house. Penn went out to the New World, pressed beyond the frontiers of the coastal colonies, and said: we'll have a state of religious liberty, and it became Pennsylvania, William Penn's colony, where people could be free to worship, following the inner light of the Holy Spirit. He crossed the Atlantic three or four times, but finally died back here, and was buried at Jordans.
Kit's note
Fox's crisis/"openings" began in spring 1646, developing through 1647, 1646 is a defensible anchor date (some historians prefer 1647 as more decisive, a minor point). The "Quaker" nickname and Fox's own preferred name, "Society of Friends," are both correct. But Fox's own writing is more careful than Pawson's summary suggests, Fox consistently held that inward light and Scripture must agree, and defended Quakers constantly against charges of abandoning Scripture, citing it heavily in disputes. What actually alarmed orthodox contemporaries (and what Pawson is really describing) was less Fox's own explicit doctrine than (a) the practical elevation, in Quaker meeting practice, of unmediated present-tense revelation over sacraments and ordained ministry, and (b) more extreme claims by other early Quakers, notably James Nayler's 1656 "triumphal entry" into Bristol (re-enacting Christ's Palm Sunday entry), which briefly scandalized the movement and got Nayler mutilated (tongue bored, forehead branded) and imprisoned. Worth naming Nayler as the concrete cautionary example rather than pinning the "Spirit vs. Scripture" tension on Fox's own stated theology.
"4,000 Quakers in prison at one time" is a widely repeated figure but not independently verifiable to a single documented snapshot. The best-documented aggregate figures across the whole period (1660–1689) run to roughly 10,000–15,000 total imprisonments and several hundred deaths in custody, e.g. 535 Yorkshire Friends imprisoned within two months of 1660; roughly 2,100 arrested from just five London meetings within a year of the 1664 Conventicle Act. Best treated as a plausible peak-moment estimate (likely originating in Joseph Besse's 1753 collection) rather than a hard verified statistic.
But, and here's a thread Pawson himself never connects, even though both figures appear in his own lecture, William Penn had a genuinely close personal relationship with James II (James's father had been friends with Penn's own father). Penn's influence is credited with having "induced the king to issue" the 4 April 1687 Declaration of Indulgence, granting liberty of worship to Catholics and Dissenters alike. In other words, Penn's advocacy for universal toleration directly helped enable James's own Catholic-toleration policy, which then collapsed in the Revolution of 1688.


James II, William and Mary, and the state of play in 1700
James II, an avowed Roman Catholic, not in any subtle way like Charles II, but completely openly, said: I'll get you back to Rome if it kills me. To do this he used a man who has gone down in history as brutal, Judge Jeffreys, James II's right-hand man. It was too much for England, and as a result of a popular rising against the king, James II had to flee.
Kit's note
Jeffreys's actual notoriety, the 1685 "Bloody Assizes" (roughly 200–320 executed, 800+ transported), followed the Duke of Monmouth's rebellion, a dynastic/political challenge to James's throne, not primarily a religious-conversion campaign; Jeffreys himself was an Anglican, not a Catholic agent. James rewarded him with the Lord Chancellorship afterward and did later use him in service of religious policy (e.g. the 1686 Ecclesiastical Commission against resisting Anglican clergy), so the general pairing is fair, but Pawson's framing collapses two distinct phases, suppressing a rebellion, then advancing Catholic toleration and appointments, into one undifferentiated "restoring Rome" narrative. James's actual religious programme, the 1687 Declaration of Indulgence (reissued 1688), Catholic appointments to Ireland's lord lieutenancy and the Privy Council, and especially the trial of the Seven Bishops (1688, for petitioning against forced reading of the Declaration), is more directly what provoked the 1688 invitation to William of Orange than Jeffreys's assize work.
Finally we have that strange pair, William and Mary, we tend to say "King William and Mary", who came to the throne of England together, and a new era of stability and tolerance began, setting the pattern for the rest of English church life, with one exception: Roman Catholics weren't allowed back in this reign, and they'd wait another hundred years. But tolerance was extended to others: in 1689, nonconformists were at least partially recognized, and the persecutions began to cease.
Kit's note
"Another hundred years" holds for the first relief measure: the Catholic Relief Act of 1778, allowing Catholics to own and inherit property, in exchange for an oath renouncing Stuart claims and papal civil jurisdiction, came almost exactly "a hundred years" after 1689. But full civil and political emancipation (sitting in Parliament, holding higher judicial or state office) didn't arrive until the Roman Catholic Relief Act of 1829, 140 years after 1689. Worth noting: the 1778 Act itself triggered a fierce backlash, the Gordon Riots of 1780, the worst civil unrest of 18th-century England, Catholic chapels and homes burned, roughly 300–700 dead before troops restored order. Tolerance arrived, but unevenly, and fiercely contested even a century on.
I have here a book, Fox's Book of Martyrs. It was required Sunday reading for children in the time of my great-grandfather. I don't know that I'd dare give it to my own children now, or I'd have their teacher after me for filling their heads with such things. It's the most horrible account of Christian martyrs, from New Testament times through to 1682. I fear the author hoped no more stories of martyrdom would need writing after Foxe's Book of Martyrs, and that the toleration gained by the end of that century would be lasting, with no more martyrs. In a sense, there haven't been any more in England. But across the world, there has not been a period of ten years since Jesus died on the cross when Christians have not died for the faith, and it still goes on somewhere in the world.
Kit's note
This is John Foxe's Actes and Monuments (first published 1563, later editions extended forward), worth distinguishing clearly from George Fox, the Quaker founder mentioned a few sections earlier; the two names are easy to confuse in spoken delivery without spelling to disambiguate. Pawson's closing reflection about ongoing global martyrdom is a fair, still-true observation, requiring no correction.
So with the Toleration Act, for the first time nonconformists could put up buildings of worship, and in the very next year, Jordans meeting house was erected, you can date that tolerance if you look at the date on Jordans meeting house, just months after the 1689 Toleration Act. A few years later, Amersham Old Town Baptist Church began, and by the end of the century, nonconformists had a thousand places of worship.
So, at the start of this lecture I gave you the state of play in 1600; now let me give you the state of play in 1700. There are now three parties in the Church of England, still here today: High, Broad, and Low. The High party still hankers after Romish practices in worship. The Low party belongs to the few Puritans who managed to stay in somehow, with very simple, unadorned worship, no vestments, no altar, just a table, worshipping much like the Church of Scotland, and doubtful about having bishops at all. Then there's the Broad party, the one I want to leave you thinking about, because it's the start of the 18th-century story.
Let me ask: what did God think about all this? What did the devil think about all this? I have the feeling the devil was laughing up his sleeve at Christians killing each other. I have the feeling he was thrilled that they were physically destroying one another. But when the Toleration Act came, and they allowed each other to worship freely, the devil had to think up a new tactic, and he thought up a most devilish one: instead of destroying Christians physically, he would think up something that would destroy them mentally.




The bridge to the 18th century: "queer" ideas from the Continent
Through the 17th century, some very queer ideas had been produced on the Continent, in the name of Christianity. In Sweden there was a scientist called Swedenborg, producing incredible ideas and calling them Christianity, founding the New Jerusalem Church. You may not have come across them, I found more of them in Lancashire. On the Continent was a man called Sosinius, in Italy, saying things like: the Bible is not the word of God, it's helpful, but not simply the word of God as such; and Jesus was not the Son of God, he was simply a great man of God we must imitate; and Jesus didn't die for our sins, he died to give us an example of love. These things were being said, and these ideas were crossing the English Channel.
There were other ideas from a man called Arminius in Holland, who opposed the teaching of Calvin. Ever since, we've had Calvinism and Arminianism, and they came almost to mental blows over this difference. Calvinism emphasized the sovereignty and will of God; Arminianism emphasized the free will of men. And into the Church of England, from the Continent, came a party who really felt that as long as you came to church and worshipped, it didn't much matter whether you held the old beliefs.
Until the end of the 17th century, all the people who disagreed about church order, about bishops, about baptism, agreed about Christian belief and what the gospel was. But now there came into the Church of England, from the Continent, a party who believed you could be much more latitudinarian in your doctrine, in other words, wider, broader in your thinking than the old-fashioned gospel. And this was to kill the Church of England almost dead, by the 1730s, spiritually robbing it of its power and heritage. And that's the story I want to take up next time.
Kit's note
This is the clearest, most unanimous error in this whole section, a chronological one, not a matter of interpretation. Emanuel Swedenborg was born in 1688, right at the tail end of the 17th century, and did not begin his theological/visionary writing until the 1740s, with major works spanning the 1740s–1760s; he died in 1772. The New Jerusalem Church was not founded until 1787, fifteen years after his death, by Robert Hindmarsh and a small group in London. Swedenborgianism is entirely an 18th-century phenomenon (indeed a late-18th-century one) and simply doesn't belong in a survey of 17th-century continental theology. It's a clean, checkable date error, worth flagging plainly, but also a good, human touch: even a careful teacher can misplace a name by a century. Worth noting: Wesley and Whitefield's own generation actually did encounter early Swedenborgianism directly (Wesley wrote critically about Swedenborg in the 1780s; some early Methodists were drawn toward New Church teaching), a genuine point of contact between the Evangelical Revival and its heterodox contemporaries, just a century later than Pawson places it.
On "Sosinius": accurate on substance (Fausto Sozzini did deny the Trinity, Christ's deity, and penal substitution, correctly summarized), but "Italy" is a half-truth. Sozzini was born in Siena (1539) and fled the Roman Inquisition, but his mature system was developed and institutionalized after he settled in Raków, Poland, in 1579; the movement's defining document, the Racovian Catechism, was published in 1605 (the year after his death in 1604), so Socinianism is more accurately a Polish theological export to England (via Socinian refugees after Poland expelled them in 1658) than a straightforwardly Italian one, even though its founder was Italian-born.
On Arminius: no correction needed, a real 17th-century Dutch controversy (Arminius died 1609; condemned at the Synod of Dort, 1618–19). And there's a satisfying forward-looking hook here: this Dutch controversy is the direct theological ancestor of one of the Evangelical Revival's defining internal conflicts, in 1740–41 the Calvinist-Arminian dispute split Whitefield (Calvinist) and Wesley (Arminian), close friends and co-laborers since 1739, into rival connexions.
On "latitudinarianism as a continental import": the broad picture (a doctrinally lax, low-intensity established church by the early 1700s, "killed almost dead") is real and well-documented, but latitudinarianism is better understood as a native Restoration-era Anglican current, associated with the Cambridge Platonists and later Archbishop John Tillotson (1691–94), responding to Locke and Newton, rather than something imported wholesale "from the continent." Continental rationalism (Socinian, Arminian/Remonstrant currents) fed into it, but the label and movement are substantially English in origin.
The century's most dramatic Calvinist controversy actually didn't happen in Holland at all, as Pawson's framing implies, but convulsed Orthodoxy's own historic center, Constantinople. Cyril Lucaris, Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople (elected 1620), published a Latin Confessio in 1629 adopting essentially Calvinist positions (predestination, sola scriptura, two sacraments) in Orthodox language, having sent young Greek clergy to study in Geneva, Holland, and England. The Confession provoked decades of turmoil; Lucaris was repeatedly deposed and reinstated, and in 1638 Sultan Murad IV had him strangled and his body thrown into the Bosphorus (officially for political treason, but the Calvinist affair was the backdrop). The controversy was only formally settled at the Synod of Jerusalem (1672), issuing the Confession of Dositheus, explicitly rejecting Calvinist double predestination, unconditional election, and irresistible grace, reaffirming the older Orthodox synergistic view (grace and free will cooperating) predating the Calvinist-Arminian debate by over a millennium. Perhaps the perfect closing counterpoint for the whole section: while an English university town quietly debated Calvinism versus Arminianism, the Calvinist controversy in the East cost a Patriarch his life.
I've told you this story not to give you a history lesson, but because I want you to realize: if we were living in 1700, you and I could not have met here tonight. We were not free to do so. You would have to conform to a set order of service, settled by act of Parliament; you would have to conform to a rigid church government, settled by act of Parliament; and there would be no freedom for you to meet as we do once a month in a church meeting, to decide what the Lord would have us do. Now this liberty is ours. Praise the Lord for that.
There were those who saw that the New Testament demanded a free church in a free state, that religion was a matter of conscience, those who carried this to the New World, those who carried it to the Continent, but above all, those who stayed here and went to prison and fought it out, that you and I might come to Gold Hill Baptist Church this Sunday evening and worship God as our conscience dictates. Thank God for this liberty. The price of liberty is eternal vigilance. We could lose that liberty again, very easily, as others have lost it. And we need not only to look back into the past, but to praise God that in the future, he can keep us where we ought to be.
I've also told you this story to say this: in spite of all these battles, in spite of all these difficulties, the church of God goes on, and in every generation the Holy Spirit converts men and women and makes them blazing preachers of the gospel, and sends them out. Even in spite of all this, the church was still there. Christians were still there. The gospel was still there. The Bible was still there. For Jesus said: "I will build my church, and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it."
PHẦN BA: THẾ KỶ 18, VÒI NƯỚC LẠNH VÀ VÒI NƯỚC NÓNG
The final lecture in this trio opens with Acts 17, Paul and Silas at Thessalonica, accused of "turning the world upside down"; at Berea, where the Jews were "more noble," examining the Scriptures daily to see if what Paul preached was true; then Athens, Paul standing in the Areopagus, preaching about "the unknown God", among the believers there was Dionysius, a member of the Areopagus council itself. Pawson lingers on the Bereans to tell his own congregation: that's exactly what he hopes they'll do with what he preaches, go home, check the Scriptures, and if it's not there, don't believe it.
Kit's note
This is an accurate Scripture reading, needing no content correction, just one small transcription slip: Pawson says "Demeris," which should read Damaris (Acts). What's worth keeping most is Pawson's own methodological spirit here, Berean "nobility," going home to check what the preacher just said, as the implicit invitation for this very fact-checking piece: it's only doing what Pawson himself asked his congregation to do.
He tells how, just weeks before the 18th century opened, in November 1699, "Master Gulliver" was wrecked on the land of Lilliput, Gulliver's Travels was born, written by Jonathan Swift, an Irishman who tried many times to settle in England, failed, and finally died insane in Dublin. It's not a children's book, it's a savage attack on English society at the start of the 18th century. A few years later, Robinson Crusoe was shipwrecked on his island, and seems much happier there than when he returns to England in 1715. Both books introduce what Pawson wants to say before turning to the church: England was going to pieces. Socially, England was in a bad way. And the question is why?
Pawson sums up the whole evening in a simple image: man was turning on the cold tap, and God was turning on the hot tap, throughout the 18th century. Man turning the cold tap of what we call rationalism, the intellect alone, reason alone. God turning the hot tap of what we call revivalism, calling great men to preach the gospel, raising the temperature of English society. The biggest lesson to draw from the 18th century: a man's beliefs affect his behavior. What a man thinks in his heart, so he will be in his outward life. "As a man thinketh in his heart, so is he", that might be the text for the whole evening.
The Lecture's Central Metaphor
The cold tap, the hot tap
🧊
Cold tap: Rationalism
- Newton, Bacon, Descartes: a universe governed by fixed law
- Deism: God made it, then left it running, like a clock
- Latitudinarianism, Moderatism, Unitarianism creep into the churches
- Society: Tyburn hangings, gambling, cheap gin, moral decay
🔥
Hot tap: The Evangelical Revival
- Zinzendorf & the Moravians, Germany
- Whitefield, the Wesley brothers — England
- Edwards, Brainerd, Frelinghuysen — North America
- Harris, Rowlands, Griffith Jones — Wales
Pawson's thesis: belief shapes behavior. As cold reason snuffed out belief in a God who acts, social morality cooled with it. But right then, God “turned on the hot tap” — through individuals he raised up, not committees or councils.

The cold tap: science, deism, and the "lawgivers of society"
Part of this was the influence of science. Copernicus said the planets revolve around the sun, not the earth. Galileo, with his telescope, confirmed it. Isaac Newton was still discovering the law of gravity through apples. But above all, Francis Bacon and Descartes said: the universe we live in is governed by laws that can't be broken. If an apple comes off a tree, it must fall, that's the law of gravity, unbreakable. This, with one blow, swept out miracle, and swept out a great deal of what happens in the Bible, since much of the Bible seems to run against such natural laws. Bacon went further, and you'd be amazed how modern he sounds, how much we're indebted to him, saying that only what you can prove by observation is true. If you can't prove something scientifically by observation, you needn't believe it; you mustn't accept anything on authority. That was a tremendous step forward, or backward, depending how you look at it. But it's astonishing how a sixth-former today says exactly the same thing: I can't believe it unless you can prove it; I can't believe in God unless you demonstrate him to me. They're just echoing Francis Bacon. And frankly, that idea kills religion dead, because the one thing you cannot prove by observation is the eternal world to which God, the devil, the angels, and everything else religious, belong.
Kit's note
No major error here, the popular genealogy (Copernicus → Galileo → Newton → mechanistic universe → challenge to miracle) is a defensible simplification. But there's a risk of over-neatness: Newton himself was a devout (if theologically unorthodox) believer, who wrote more on biblical prophecy than physics, and did not see his laws as anti-miraculous. The "mechanized universe equals no God" reading is a later Deist appropriation of Newton, not Newton's own view.
So where does God fit in? Did people stop believing in God in the 18th century? No. But they switched from a belief we call theism to a belief we call deism, one step on the way to atheism. Theism is the belief that God created the world and controls it. Deism is the belief that God created it but can't control it. Atheism is the belief he didn't even create it, because there's no God to create it. One of the most popular images, propounded by a bishop: the world is like a gigantic clock. Once you've wound it up, there's nothing more you can do, it just runs according to its own laws. So they said: God made the world, wound it up, and now can only sit back. There is a God, but he can't do anything. And that's really a dead sort of God. You wouldn't pray much to a God who couldn't do anything, would you? And this was killing prayer, killing belief in a living God still in control of everything.
This kind of thinking, that God is far away and can't do much, crept right into the churches, under different names in different places: in the Church of England they called it latitudinarianism; in the Church of Scotland, moderatism; and among the Baptists, unitarianism, because one belief was that God couldn't possibly have "come down" at Christmas, and Jesus must simply have been a great man. And so watered-down faith began to disappear. Every denomination suffered from this thinking. Some Baptist churches closed because of it. Worship became very formal, very dead. You came only to pay respects to the deity who made it all, but you were never to expect him to do anything. God couldn't. He was outside what he had made.
Kit's note
This is the single most important correction in the whole "cold tap" section: "Baptists: unitarianism" is a significant overgeneralization. The Unitarian drift crystallized specifically at the Salters' Hall conference (1719) in London, where Dissenting ministers split over subscribing to Trinitarian formulas. It hollowed out the General (Arminian) Baptists and many Presbyterian congregations over the following decades, the old General Baptist Assembly (founded 1653) lost numerous churches to Unitarianism or saw them die out. But the Particular (Calvinistic) Baptists ran the opposite trajectory across the same century, flourishing and producing Andrew Fuller, John Ryland, and William Carey, founder of the Baptist Missionary Society Pawson himself celebrates later. So when Pawson says "the Baptists drifted into unitarianism," he means specifically the General Baptists, the Calvinistic wing of the same family was, at the very same moment, incubating the modern missionary movement. This is a sharper illustration of Pawson's own cold-tap/hot-tap thesis than anything he says explicitly.
It wasn't only "laws of nature" being discovered. Other writers thought they'd discovered "laws of human nature," laws of society. John Locke wrote about the laws governing society. Voltaire, living in "the age of Louis XIV" in France. Rousseau, another Frenchman, with his famous saying: "man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains." Then there was the Scotsman Adam Smith, writing a very big book on balancing imports and exports and the division of labor, strangely modern, I wonder if today's chancellors have read Adam Smith. And Mary Wollstonecraft, fighting for the rights, you might almost say divine rights, of women, writing a book advocating women voting, playgrounds at schools, co-education, revolutionary in its day. All these were trying to discover laws of society, laws of human nature. But they were all saying the same thing: the laws of society, like the laws of nature, don't need God. The natural world runs without God. The social world, human nature, runs without him too. And it was from these ideas that things like the French Revolution came, Rousseau has been called the father of the French Revolution.
Kit's note
This is a confirmed error, flagged in every independent research pass: Voltaire is misplaced. Born 1694, in the last two decades of Louis XIV's 72-year reign (which ended with the king's death in 1715, when Voltaire was 20), Voltaire's entire adult literary and philosophical career, the Lettres philosophiques, Candide, the Ferney years, the campaign against clerical abuse in the Calas affair, his 1745 appointment as royal historiographer, unfolds under Louis XV (r. 1715–1774) and briefly Louis XVI. "The age of Louis XIV" properly denotes the earlier high-classical court culture of Bossuet, Racine, and Pascal, a different cultural moment entirely. An interesting wrinkle: Voltaire himself wrote a celebrated history titled Le Siècle de Louis XIV (1751), about a period he hadn't lived through as an adult, which may be the actual source of the confusion.
The church tried to fight back with the weapons of the intellect. Two bishops, Bishop Butler and Bishop Barclay, really tried to preach intellectually, matching the evidence against God with evidence for God, making the whole thing something of an intellectual argument. Quite frankly, that never yet did much good. You can never argue a person into spiritual life. You might remove some of their questions and barriers. But you'll never build a church on intellectual argument alone.
Kit's note
Bishop Joseph Butler (1692–1752) and his Analogy of Religion (1736) are real and exactly as described, the era's leading episcopal apologetic response to deism. But "Bishop Barclay" does not exist as a historical figure matching this role. No prominent 18th-century Church of England bishop named Barclay wrote anti-deist apologetics alongside Butler. This is almost certainly a mishearing or mistranscription of Bishop George Berkeley (Bishop of Cloyne from 1734), the Irish philosopher, whose Alciphron, or the Minute Philosopher (1732) is precisely the sustained, famous rebuttal of deists and freethinkers that would naturally pair with Butler's Analogy. (Robert Barclay, the genuinely famous theologian named "Barclay" in church history, was a 17th-century Quaker apologist, predating this debate by over 50 years, a different tradition entirely.) Also worth noting: Butler's Analogy is more sophisticated than Pawson's dismissive verdict allows, it argued from the difficulties common to both nature and revealed religion rather than pure evidentialism, and was respected even by skeptics like Hume.







England drifts, while America and France revolt
Jefferson wrote Locke's philosophy straight into the Declaration of Independence. Read Locke's book first, then the Declaration, and you'll see where America got it from. In France, July 1789, all these new ideas burst into the French Revolution. Now reason was to be the goddess. And on the very altar of Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris, they enthroned a goddess of reason, declared no more God, and the reign of terror began. Later, Napoleon entered Rome, confiscated the papal territories, and brought the Pope as a prisoner to France. That was the kind of turmoil going on. In America, the revolt of the colonies and the Declaration of Independence. In France, the French Revolution. And in England, with all this turmoil of ideas, what happened? The answer: precious little. England just drifted downward, while everywhere else had a revolution. Again, quite typically English, we just let things slide.
Kit's note
The sequencing here is compressed and slightly reversed. The Festival of Reason at Notre-Dame is real, 10 November 1793, organized by radical Hébertists (Chaumette, Momoro, Hébert), replacing the Christian altar with one to Liberty/Reason, with a living woman staged as the personified goddess. But the Terror is conventionally dated earlier than 1793's end (the Law of Suspects, September 1793), it was already well underway before the November Festival, not triggered by it. And "no more God" oversimplifies a genuinely contested, short-lived episode: the Cult of Reason was one radical faction's project, not a unanimous Revolutionary program, and it didn't last, within months Robespierre, judging atheism politically dangerous, suppressed it and in June 1794 instituted the rival Cult of the Supreme Being, an explicitly Deist cult. This actually reinforces Pawson's own larger thesis (deism as the era's dominant religious posture) better than "no more God" does.
Napoleon's personal role is overstated, and the Rome episode is telescoped with a later one. It was General Louis-Alexandre Berthier, acting for the French Directory, who occupied Rome on 10 February 1798 and proclaimed a "Roman Republic"; Pope Pius VI, refusing to renounce temporal power, was arrested on 20 February 1798 and deported, Napoleon himself was in Egypt for most of 1798–99 and wasn't personally present. Pius VI was moved through several locations and died a prisoner at Valence, France, on 29 August 1799, never returning to Rome, the first pope in centuries to die in exile. Napoleon's better-known personal clash with a pope, arresting Pius VII, came later, in 1809, after Napoleon was Emperor. Pawson's account appears to conflate the two episodes.
Kit's note
For Catholic memory this isn't a small coda but a decade-long trauma: a reigning pope dying in captivity, the Papal States' temporal power extinguished (briefly restored in 1800, lost definitively in 1870). And it didn't come from nowhere, Rome's own house had already been under severe strain for decades before 1789: Jansenism (condemned by the papal bull Unigenitus, 1713, but persisting, entangled with Gallican resistance to papal authority); Josephinism in the Habsburg lands (Emperor Joseph II subjecting monasteries and seminaries to state control in the 1780s); and, the single largest institutional blow of the century, the Bourbon monarchies of Portugal (1759), France (1764), and Spain (1767) forcing Pope Clement XIV to suppress the entire Society of Jesus worldwide by the brief Dominus ac Redemptor (21 July 1773), not restored until 1814. The same rationalist current Pawson traces through English deism was, on the Continent, hollowing out the Catholic establishment from within for a generation before the Revolution's dechristianization campaign delivered the final blow.
Also worth noting: Pawson's mention of Catholics being "let back in" to English life by century's end is true but partial. The Catholic Relief Act 1778 and the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1791 removed some penal restrictions, but chapels still couldn't have steeples or bells, priests couldn't wear vestments in public, monastic orders were still banned, and there was no right to vote or sit in Parliament; full civil emancipation waited until 1829. Worth naming the violent backlash the 1778 Act provoked: the Gordon Riots, June 1780, London, the worst civil unrest of 18th-century England, Catholic chapels and homes burned, roughly 300–700 dead before troops restored order. The "hot tap" revival Pawson celebrates ran through the very same decades as raw, sometimes murderous English anti-Catholicism, a tension his lecture elides entirely, and worth one honest sentence.
So England drifted rather than revolted. Religiously, there was a hearty dislike of what was called "enthusiasm", nowadays we'd say emotionalism. People went to church and said: no emotionalism in church, no fanaticism, just a nice intellectual talk from the vicar. But no getting excited. No getting worked up. No showing any feeling. And of course that's not a balanced religion. Lethargy and apathy crept into the congregations. A century earlier they went to fight for religion. Now they just sat in a pew and yawned. Religion, I'm afraid, became very much the religion of the upper class. The working man was poor, ignorant, and simply not welcome.
Bishop Butler was offered the Archbishopric of Canterbury, and is said to have replied: "it's too late for me to save a dying church. It will have disappeared in my lifetime." That was the state of the church. And where the spiritual state is like that, the moral state will be worse. If you wanted an afternoon's entertainment in the 18th century, you got your family together and went up to Tyburn, now Hyde Park Corner, near Marble Arch, and took a picnic, to watch people being hanged. It was great fun. Children. Women. Men. You could be hanged for stealing five shillings' worth of goods, or a single shilling. If you wanted other amusement, you went to a cockpit and watched cock-fighting. And of course the quickest way out of London and the other industrial areas was the public house, drink was so cheap the signs hanging in the lanes simply read: "Drunk for a penny. Dead drunk for tuppence. Free straw to lie on." This led to the most appalling abuses, heavy drinking, heavy gambling, heavy fighting. If you want to study English social life in this cold, intellectual religious period, read Fielding's Tom Jones, or study Hogarth's cartoons, The Rake's Progress, or read Boswell's Life of Johnson. One contemporary writer summed it all up: "Decay in religion, licentiousness in morals, public corruption, and profaneness of language." That was England, in the first 30–40 years of the 18th century. No wonder a man was busy writing Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Edward Gibbon. I'm surprised he didn't go on to write Decline and Fall of English Society, he easily could have.
So what stopped England from having a revolution? Why didn't the poor rise up? Why wasn't there a complete turning-upside-down of society, as in America, as in France? The answer: during this century, God turned on the hot tap.




The hot tap: Wales, America, and Count von Zinzendorf
God's method is always this: to choose a personality, and fill that personality with his Holy Spirit, enabling them to do it. This has always been God's method. It's very rarely that God has worked through committees or larger groups of people. His method is always to raise up men to do the job, and it always will be, as long as those men remain in the relationship to Christ they should be.
For those of you from Wales, he raised up Howell Harris, Griffith Jones, and Daniel Rowlands, who changed the course of Welsh history. For those from America, it was in this century that he raised up Theodore Frelinghuysen, and through him influenced the great preacher Jonathan Edwards, and that great man of prayer David Brainerd, who went as a missionary to the Indians and died after only three years, but changed American history. It's estimated that in the 18th century, in America alone, 300,000 people were led to the Lord, considering the population then, that's quite a revival, with camp meetings flourishing at the end of the century.
Kit's note
Theodorus Jacobus Frelinghuysen's revival (Dutch Reformed, Raritan Valley, New Jersey, from 1720) is real and a genuinely early spark of the Great Awakening, bearing revival fruit as early as 1727, before Edwards's Northampton awakening (1734–35). But the "Frelinghuysen → Edwards" influence line is indirect. Historians typically describe them as parallel, largely independent originators of revival in different colonies and denominations (Dutch Reformed vs. Congregationalist), whose streams later converged chiefly through Gilbert Tennent, who was directly discipled by Frelinghuysen and interacted with Edwards's circle. "Frelinghuysen → Brainerd" is even more indirect, running through Tennent and the New Brunswick Presbytery network rather than personal mentorship. Better framing: "part of the same wave, cross-pollinating through Tennent," not teacher-and-student.
Brainerd's active field ministry ran about four years (1743–1747), not three, among the Delaware/Housatonic peoples at Kaunaumeek, the Forks of the Delaware, and Crossweeksung. He died of tuberculosis 9 October 1747, age 29, at Jonathan Edwards's own home in Northampton. Brainerd's real historical weight is his posthumous diary, not his field results, Edwards edited and published it as An Account of the Life of the Late Reverend Mr. David Brainerd (1749), one of the most influential missionary biographies in Protestant history, directly shaping William Carey and Henry Martyn (both of whom appear later in this same lecture). This is a stronger, more accurate "changed American history" claim than the bare three-years-and-died framing.
"300,000 led to the Lord" is unverifiable and should be read as Pawson's own estimate, not a documented statistic. No standard academic treatment of the First Great Awakening cites this figure; it would represent a very large fraction of the entire colonial population (roughly 2.5 million by 1775).
But the two countries I want to talk about are first Germany, then England, because they're closely related. I want to tell you about a man God raised up in Germany, called Count von Zinzendorf. (You have some of his hymns in the hymn book here, "Jesus, Still Lead On" and "Jesus, Thy Blood and Righteousness.") Zinzendorf had a huge estate in Saxony called Herrnhut. And to that estate one day came some beggars, worshippers of the Lord Jesus Christ, remnants of the church of John Huss in Bohemia. Even centuries after Huss, they still met simply around the Lord Jesus Christ. They'd been turned out of their own country, and they came to von Zinzendorf. He'd been converted not long before, and he said: come in, you can have my estate, build houses here, I'll protect you, and together we'll build a Christian community. And they did, calling it the Moravian Community, and they became the first real missionary society in Europe. There had been other attempts at missionary work before, but that little group of Moravians sent out no fewer than 25 missionaries in the first few years of their life, taking the gospel of Christ to the utmost parts of the earth.
Von Zinzendorf once said: "I have only one passion. It is Jesus." And that sums up his life. No wonder he was the great man he was.
Kit's note
The Hus lineage is real but compressed, and the precise dates strengthen rather than undercut Pawson's point. Jan Hus was burned at the stake 6 July 1415 at the Council of Constance (a Catholic council), despite traveling under an imperial safe-conduct, a breach of faith Catholic historians themselves now generally regret. About forty years later, radicalized followers, shaped by the lay theologian Petr Chelčický, organized as the Unitas Fratrum ("Unity of the Brethren") in 1457 at Kunvald, a distinct, stricter "believers' church" break from both Rome and the more moderate Hussite Utraquists. After brutal Counter-Reformation suppression following the Battle of White Mountain (1620), the Brethren survived underground for roughly a century as the "Hidden Seed" before a remnant reached Zinzendorf's estate in 1722, 307 years after Hus's death, 265 after the Unitas Fratrum's founding. So "remnants of the church of John Huss" is shorthand for a far more precise, remarkable underground-survival story.
"First real missionary society in Europe" needs a scoping qualifier. It's defensible as "first Protestant lay/voluntary missionary movement" (predating William Carey's Baptist Missionary Society by 60 years, community-wide rather than clergy-led), but flatly stated, it erases centuries of prior organized Catholic missions (Jesuits, Franciscans, Dominicans since the 16th century) and organized Orthodox missions (Russian Orthodox monastic missions to Finno-Ugric and Siberian peoples going back to St Stephen of Perm, 14th century, continuing through St Gury of Kazan into the 17th–18th century). Better framing: "first Protestant missionary society driven by ordinary laypeople rather than clergy or a colonial crown", still a remarkable claim.
The "25 missionaries" figure, if anything, understates the scale. The first two Moravian missionaries (Leonard Dober, David Nitschmann) left for the Danish West Indies on 8 October 1732. From a home community of well under 1,000 (some sources say under 600), historians count roughly 70 missionaries sent out in the first decade (1732–1742), including 18 who left for St. Croix/St. Thomas alone in August 1733, and 226 by 1760. Missiologist Kenneth Scott Latourette treats Herrnhut, not any 19th-century society, as the true birthplace of the modern Protestant missionary movement, on exactly this basis: proportionally the highest missions-sending rate of any Protestant body until the 19th century.


George Whitefield: "rope of sand"
The first man God laid his hand on was a young man working his way through Oxford by cleaning the shoes of the other students. His name: George Whitefield. God laid his hand on that young man, going places, hard-working, disciplined. But God said: George Whitefield, you're a sinner and you need salvation. Through a great spiritual struggle, George Whitefield came to know the Lord Jesus Christ. He began to preach. A year after his conversion he was preaching, I forget where, but I remember his first text: Paul’s second letter to the Corinthians, "If any man be in Christ, he is a new creature." He preached it at Gloucester. And when he preached that sermon, he said something that mortally offended most of his hearers: "I do not care if you've been baptized. I do not care if you've had water on your forehead in the name of the Trinity." He said: "You must be born again." He said: "I've got the new birth. And I want you to have it." When he finished preaching, 17 people were born again. That was the beginning. He was soon preaching to 30,000 and 40,000 at once. He not only traveled England, he went to Scotland, preaching to 40,000 in Edinburgh, then crossed the Atlantic thirteen times, dying in America at the end. But he preached everywhere he could go. George Whitefield was one of the greatest servants of God England has seen.
The tragedy is that most of his work disappeared after his death, because he never organized follow-up for his converts. The only person who really urged him to start churches, in a sense, was the Countess of Huntingdon. If you've ever seen a church with "The Countess of Huntingdon's Connexion" over the door, you're looking back to the days of that lady, who supported George Whitefield. But when he died, he said: "I feel my work has been a rope of sand, and will disappear very quickly." And in fact it has. You don't hear of any Whitefieldites today. You don't hear of any groups bearing his name today, except that Countess of Huntingdon connexion, and one or two other small groups. But nevertheless, he led thousands to the Lord. I don't mean they fell away, I mean they found their way into other churches.
Kit's note
"17 people born again" is almost certainly a transformed legend, not a documented fact. The genuinely well-attested anecdote, from Whitefield's own journal and every standard biography, has the opposite valence: a complaint was lodged with Bishop Martin Benson of Gloucester that Whitefield's 27 June 1736 sermon had driven "fifteen persons mad," to which Benson reportedly replied he hoped the "madness" wouldn't be forgotten by the next Sunday. There's no primary-source record of a specific "17 conversions" tally from that sermon, Pawson (or his source material) appears to have converted a well-known story about alarmed critics, counting people driven to religious distress, into a triumphant conversion count. A textbook example of hagiographic drift in oral preaching traditions. Also worth noting: that first sermon's actual subject was "The Necessity and Benefit of Religious Society", Whitefield's full-throated new-birth preaching intensified over the following months from spring 1737, not necessarily verbatim in the debut sermon.
The "40,000 in Edinburgh" figure is likely misattributed. Whitefield's largest recorded Edinburgh-area crowds were closer to 15,000 (contemporary accounts of his 1741 visit); the truly massive figure historians cite, around 100,000, was at Cambuslang, near Glasgow, during the 1742 "Cambuslang Wark" revival, not Edinburgh itself.
Kit's note
The Countess of Huntingdon's Connexion is undersold as "one or two other small groups." In fact Selina Hastings built a real network of proprietary chapels from the 1760s, trained her own ministers at Trevecca College, and, when Church of England authorities moved against her chapels' legal status, formally registered them as Dissenting meeting houses under the Toleration Act (1781–83), with the first ordination of her own ministers on 9 March 1783. This produced a genuine Calvinistic-Methodist free church with its own confession (the Fifteen Articles of Faith). From a free-church perspective, this is arguably the more theologically consistent outcome of Whitefield's Calvinistic revivalism than Wesley's decades-long agonizing over whether Methodism could stay inside the Church of England (see below).
Though not the first in order if we look at the date of his birth, I place him first in the order of merit, without any hesitation. Of all the spiritual heroes of a hundred years ago, none saw so soon as Whitefield what the times demanded... There are Lutherans and Wesleyans in the present day, but there are no Whitefieldites. The great evangelist of last century was a simple, guileless man, who lived for one thing only, and that was to preach Christ., J. C. Ryle, "Christian Leaders of the Eighteenth Century" (1885)


John Wesley: "a brand plucked from the burning"
The other great man I must tell you about, and here I'll take more time, because he deserves it, is John Wesley, one of my great heroes. The story begins in a little village in Lincolnshire, where my wife and I were married, Epworth. We were married in the Wesley Memorial Church. And in that rectory, something happened, something new was born.
John Wesley's grandparents had been Independents, which explains a great deal. But his parents were both Anglican by conviction, serving as vicar and vicar's wife of that little town of Epworth. Samuel Wesley, the father, was quite an amazing man, a bit of a poet, spending most of his years writing a poem on Job that was never really popular, but he passed on to his sons a poetic gift. But the mother was the truly amazing one: old Susanna Wesley. She had 19 children, trained them not to cry after they were a year old, and when they turned five, taught them to read, by the end of their first week, they could read the book of Genesis. How much they understood, I don't know, and how she did it, I don't know, no initial training alphabet, none of your modern toys to help. She gave one hour a week to each child, to help them grow spiritually. And when you study the life of Susanna Wesley, you've studied the beginning of Methodism, for that's what was to come.
When John, or "Jackie" as she called him, was seven years old, the rectory caught fire. They got all the children out, bar one, Jackie, little John. Those who've seen the film will remember the dramatic moment when they saw him at the upstairs window, and how the villagers climbed on each other's backs to rescue him. She clutched him to her bosom and said: you're a brand plucked from the burning. And from then she believed John would be her greatest son. And so he was.
Kit's note
Wesley was five, not seven, at the time of the fire, flagged unanimously across every independent research pass, and one of the clearest corrections in the whole piece. He was born 17 June 1703; the fire was the night of 9 February 1709, he wouldn't turn six for another four months. Every reputable source gives "aged 5," or at most rounds to "aged 6." No reputable source gives age 7. Worth adding: Wesley carried this self-image his whole life, not just as a childhood anecdote, he drafted his own epitaph in his Journal (26 November 1753), opening: "Here lieth the body of John Wesley, a brand plucked out of the burning."
Kit's note
Susanna reared 10 children to adulthood, not 12. Standard biographical consensus gives 19 children born, roughly 9 dying in infancy, and 10 surviving to adulthood (seven daughters, three sons, John, Charles, Samuel Jr.). "12" is on the high end of any commonly cited figure.
Kit's note
Susanna's disciplined, catechetical, rule-governed home piety is frequently identified as the direct behavioral template for what became "Methodism", not just the name but the method itself. This traces directly to her own upbringing: her father, Samuel Annesley, was a prominent Nonconformist divine ejected from his living in 1662 (the same Great Ejection noted in the 17th-century section above), and Susanna herself was raised in that Dissenting tradition before conforming to the Church of England as a young woman. Pawson's own throwaway aside, "independents... which explains a great deal", gestures at exactly this but never develops it: Susanna's "conquering the will before instruction" pedagogy sits in direct continuity with Puritan household-religion manuals (e.g. Richard Baxter's family-worship guidance), meaning Methodism's famous methodicalness is, at root, one generation removed from Puritan domestic discipline.

He went to Charterhouse School, then Oxford, joining his brother Charles. There they formed what they called the Holy Club, and my, it offended everybody else too, as such a name might suggest. They got up at four in the morning to pray, did their studies as ordinary students during the day, then visited the jail, and ran a dispensary for the sick. And they were trying desperately to save themselves by being good. One member of the Holy Club was George Whitefield, that's where their paths crossed. This little group of students were desperately trying to get to heaven by being good. They still hadn't learned how you become a Christian. They were so methodical in the way they got up, and went to the jail, and did this and that, keeping accounts of it all, that other students stopped calling them the Holy Club and gave them a nickname: Methodists. It was a term of abuse. But the nickname stuck, and has stuck to this very day.
The time came when John felt he still wasn't doing enough for God, so he offered for the ministry, as his father had before him, as his brother had before him. John and Charles were ordained by the Archbishop of Canterbury, priests of the Church of England, and still not Christians. And because they knew this in their hearts, they felt they weren't doing enough for God, so they volunteered as missionaries to Georgia, to the Red Indians, thinking: surely if you go as a missionary, you get saved. And they went out to save their own souls. Could you get that far without being a Christian? Of course you can. And they did. They were not only priests, they were missionaries. And they hadn't saved their own souls, desperately trying to.
On the way out, in the middle of the Atlantic, they struck a storm. Everyone panicked, threw things overboard to lighten the ship, thought the end had come. But in the middle of the ship were a group of people, quiet, calm, praying. Moravian refugees, from Hanhut, who knew Count von Zinzendorf. John Wesley went up to them afterward, in his clergyman's garb: why weren't you afraid? They said: why should we be? And one of them began asking about his soul: do you know that Jesus is your savior? This clergyman, John Wesley, replied: I know he is the savior of the world. But do you know that he is your savior? Wesley said yes. But in his diary that night he admitted it was a lie, writing: I go to Georgia to save my own soul. How can I save the souls of the Indians? He came back to London after three miserable years of failure, wondering what to do. His brother came back too, an equal failure.
But praise God, God had someone waiting for them in London: a man called Peter Böhler (Pawson pronounces it "Peter Berler"), another Moravian, from Count Zinzendorf. Peter Böhler got hold of them, talked to them. And there was one never-to-be-forgotten Sunday: John Wesley went to St Paul's Cathedral to worship that morning. Reading his Bible that morning, he opened it and read: "Thou art not far from the kingdom of God." And that night he went to a little meeting of the Moravian Germans on Aldersgate Street. (There's a Barclays Bank there now, but they've put a plaque marking where it happened.) In Aldersgate Street, on 24 May 1738, he went to the meeting, and they read aloud Luther's preface to Romans. (I wonder how many people today would sit through a theological preface being read aloud for hours in church.) But when the clock struck a quarter to nine that night, John Wesley says this: "I felt my heart strangely warmed. I felt I did trust Christ, that he had saved me from my sins, even mine, saved me from the law of sin and death." And an assurance was given him in that moment that he really was a forgiven sinner.
Here was a man who'd been a failed missionary, an ordained priest of the Church of England, who'd done so much good for other people, and yet had never known his own sins forgiven. That's what happens when you try to save yourself, because you're putting your trust in what you do instead of what Christ does. And this was the one thing he'd never learned.
Kit's note
This whole sequence, Peter Böhler, the St Paul's morning, the Aldersgate meeting on the night of 24 May 1738, reading Luther's preface to Romans, and the "heart strangely warmed" quote, is essentially perfect and can be retold with confidence. Wesley's own Journal entry for 24–25 May 1738 matches almost verbatim: "About a quarter before nine, while [the leader] was describing the change which God works in the heart through faith in Christ, I felt my heart strangely warmed." The pronunciation "Berler" for Böhler, and the plaque marking the site, are both correctly noted.
One genuinely interesting nuance, not a factual error: what warmed Wesley's heart that night was a Lutheran text on justification by faith alone, not a distinctively Wesleyan-Arminian formulation. Aldersgate sits at a real theological hinge between Reformation sola fide and the Revival's newer, experiential emphasis on felt assurance. Scholars (notably Henry Rack, Reasonable Enthusiast, 1989) have long debated whether Aldersgate was Wesley's "conversion" in the born-again sense, or an assurance experience layered onto a faith he already held from his Georgia and pre-Georgia years, Wesley himself later somewhat softened his own retrospective judgment of the night's significance. A nuance that deepens the story, not one that contradicts it.

Soon after, he went to Germany to visit von Zinzendorf, coming back with many hymns which he translated into English. But he came back wanting to preach the gospel. Preach he did, but the pulpits closed to him. Every time he preached in a Church of England building, they told him afterward: that's your first and last visit here. And so he finally reached a point where he couldn't preach at all. Then George Whitefield said to him: John, will you come and preach in the open air? John Wesley thought it the most dreadful thing in the world, an ordained clergyman not preaching from a pulpit. But then he remembered that Christ himself preached the Sermon on the Mount. And he said: if Christ could preach on a mountain, so can I. He went down to Kingswood, outside Bristol, to the miners, and preached. As he preached, he describes in his journal how the tears made "little white rivers down their black cheeks." John Wesley realized God was calling him to the same ministry as George Whitefield, who was now leaving for America. He took up the threads of Whitefield's preaching. That was April 1739, when he began open-air preaching.
He met opposition, dragged by the hair through the streets at times, as in the Wednesbury riots. But in 50 years he traveled a quarter of a million miles on horseback, with a Bible in his hand and a horse between his knees. He'd ride into a village and preach, and this is how he preached: he'd begin with the Ten Commandments, preaching the law, the law by which every man and woman will be judged, and he'd go on preaching the law for days, until people began to look unhappy, began to look troubled. Then, when he realized they were beginning to feel themselves sinners, he says in his diary: "I began to mix a bit of the love of God with the law of God." And a bit more. And a bit more. Until finally I was preaching the gospel of the love of God. Wesley discovered: you cannot preach the love of God until you preach the law. There's no point preaching a Savior to those who never felt their own misery. "What comfort can a Savior bring to those who never felt their woe?", that was written all over his ministry.
His three centers were London, Bristol, Newcastle, and all across that triangle you'll find places Wesley preached. His last sermon was preached at Leatherhead, Surrey. He preached on the principle, as he said, that "the world is my parish", and there may be some truth that he was helped in his travels by an unhappy marriage, keeping him on the move. That was the one real shadow over his life, though many are grateful for it, since it kept him traveling. He traveled and traveled, preached and preached, seven times a day was normal. He didn't only preach, he wrote and published books and pamphlets. He opened schools and orphanages, dispensaries. He was the first to use electric treatment for rheumatism, with a machine you can still see at his house on City Road today, and they've discovered it produces enough electricity to kill a man, but he used it for rheumatism. He was the most varied man, but obviously, he couldn't do it all himself.
The trouble was he had few clergy to work with him. So his mother came up with an idea: what about unordained preachers? Local lay preachers, who wouldn't travel everywhere as he did, but preach locally? One of the very first team of six was John Pawson, and his wife, Frances Pawson, was one of the leading Methodist women of that day. (I suppose our tribal association goes back to that.) With a team like that, John Wesley's reply to his mother was: give me a hundred such men, we're setting them on fire. And they did. When he died, there were 80,000 people meeting in fellowship as a result of his travels.
He didn't do what George Whitefield did, or rather, he did what Whitefield didn't do: when they were converted, he built them into fellowships, largely because the local churches wouldn't have them. He called these not "churches" but "societies," Methodist societies, giving them class leaders whose job it was to lead them spiritually. Then he had, we could say, so many societies in a district, and he called that district a "circuit", because a local preacher could go around it on horseback once a month and preach in every place. So he built horse circuits the local preachers traveled around. This kind of machinery is still used today, though I think it's ill-adapted to the 20th century, but for horseback, it was a very good idea, ideal organization for the setting he was in.
Bear in mind, all this time, John Wesley was a Church of England clergyman. What did they think about him? I'm afraid they thought very badly of him, especially when he ordained ministers for America. And though he never left the Church of England, it was quite obvious that as soon as he died, the Methodist societies would become Methodist churches. And this they did. The split came as soon as he died. But I think John Wesley was to blame, or at least was the man who did all that needed to be done to bring about the separation. I like the remark of someone who said: John Wesley was like a man rowing a boat. He kept his face towards the Church of England, but every pull of his oars took him further from it. That's precisely what he did. And so we're left at the end of the 18th century with a very large group of Methodists, in addition to the Anglicans, in addition to the Presbyterians and the Congregationalists, the Baptists and the Friends. And by century's end, Roman Catholics were allowed back in too. We're beginning to get the kind of picture we live in.
Kit's note
"80,000" is a reasonable round figure for the British societies alone, but understates the full global Wesleyan movement, more precise standard figures: 71,668 members in 294 societies in Great Britain at Wesley's death (2 March 1791, per the 1791 Conference Minutes), plus roughly 5,300 on overseas mission stations, plus separately about 43,000–60,000 members (figures vary by source) in the newly independent American Methodist Episcopal Church, a combined global total closer to 110,000–130,000. This is a stronger number for Pawson's own triumphant point, not a weaker one.
The "decisive" break can actually be dated more precisely than "as soon as he died", it happened in 1784, seven years before Wesley's death. With American Methodists left without valid clergy after the Revolution (the Church of England had no bishop in the new United States), Wesley, persuaded by Lord Peter King's and Bishop Stillingfleet's argument that in the early church "bishops and presbyters are essentially of one order", personally ordained preachers as deacons and elders and consecrated Thomas Coke as "superintendent" for America on 1–2 September 1784, without episcopal sanction. Charles Wesley's own reaction, "Ordination is separation", captures exactly how radical this was seen to be, even by his own brother. Formal separation of British Methodism from the Church of England came slightly later, via the 1795 Plan of Pacification (after Wesley's death), allowing Methodist preachers to administer the sacraments in their own right. So "as soon as he died" telescopes a process with a clear, dateable, decisive moment years earlier, a stronger, more dramatic story than Pawson's vaguer version. Worth adding: the 1784 ordinations were the single most "Free Church" act of Wesley's entire career, resting on precisely the presbyterian/congregational argument English Separatists, Baptists, and Puritans had made since the late 16th century against episcopal apostolic succession. Wesley spent his life resisting the label "Dissenter," yet when practical necessity forced his hand, he reached for exactly the ecclesiology the Radical Reformation had pioneered two centuries earlier.


Charles Simeon, and five results of the Revival
Now let me finally look at one other great man of this century, right at the end of it. In 1799 (as Pawson tells it), there came a young, dissolute student to Cambridge, by the name Charles Simeon, hunting, shooting, fishing, a gay young man. When he came to Cambridge, he came face to face with his own life, went through a spiritual struggle, and out of it came to a sense of forgiveness. As he put it: "I laid my sins on the head of Jesus." He was shortly ordained to the ministry, and at the early age of 23, went as vicar to Holy Trinity Church, where it was my privilege to preach a month ago. In the vestry, you can see his teapot, his umbrella, pictures of him, Charles Simeon. He preached, and the church was thronged, with a tremendous influence on the students. It was from his congregation that that young man, Henry Martyn, went out to die in Persia as one of the greatest missionaries there's ever been. Charles Simeon must be put in the great list of heroes of this century.
Kit's note
The year should read 1779, not 1799, flagged unanimously across every independent research pass, and one of the two cleanest corrections in the whole dossier. Simeon (b. 1759) matriculated at King's College, Cambridge in 1779, had his conversion experience there that year, was ordained deacon in 1782, and became vicar (technically perpetual curate) of Holy Trinity Church on 9 November 1782, at age 23, the age-23 detail Pawson gets exactly right, which is precisely why "1799" reads as a spoken slip or mishearing of "1779" (an easy transposition) rather than a considered claim; note 1799 is also, confusingly, the correct founding year of the Church Missionary Society, which Pawson mentions later in this same lecture, plausibly the actual source of the crossed wire. Simeon served Holy Trinity 54 years until his death in 1836. Simeon is a significant hinge figure for evangelical Anglicanism, worth a fuller sentence than Pawson gives him: his massive Horae Homileticae (sermon outlines through the entire Bible) shaped generations of evangelical clergy, and his informal "Simeon Trust" patronage system placed evangelical vicars in livings across England, arguably as institutionally consequential as Wesley's circuit system, though far less colorful.
Now let me finally list some of the practical things that came out of this. I know exactly the kind of thing people say, and they still say it: what's the point of all this gospel preaching and hymn singing? What we need is people who get on and make the world a better place. All this hot gospeling and ranting doesn't do anybody any good. May I say the 18th century gives the lie to that, let me give you five results, very simply.
The first, one the world won't appreciate, but which Christians have appreciated ever since: the century burst into song. I've mentioned Isaac Watts, think of his famous hymns: "I'll Praise My Maker," "O God, Our Help in Ages Past," "When I Survey the Wondrous Cross," "Jesus Shall Reign Where'er the Sun." What about Philip Doddridge? "Hark the Glad Sound, the Saviour Comes," "O God of Bethel." What about Cowper? "God Moves in a Mysterious Way," "There Is a Fountain Filled with Blood." What about Newton? "How Sweet the Name of Jesus Sounds," "Glorious Things of Thee Are Spoken." And above all, Charles Wesley. Charles Wesley wrote 6,000 hymns, for every conceivable occasion. He'd write them on horseback, arrive at a house and say: don't speak to me, give me a pen and paper, quick. And out would come a hymn. We'll finish this service with one he wrote when he was one year old spiritually, on the anniversary of his conversion, when Peter Böhler, the Moravian German, said to Charles Wesley: if I had a thousand tongues, I'd want to sing the praise of Christ. And down it came: "Oh, for a Thousand Tongues to Sing My Great Redeemer's Praise." Among his thousands of others, remember "Hark, the Herald Angels Sing," "And Can It Be," "Love Divine, All Loves Excelling," "Jesus, Lover of My Soul," and "Rejoice, the Lord Is King."
Kit's note
"6,000 hymns" is a commonly repeated round figure within the plausible range, but modern scholarship puts the true total higher, Dr. Frank Baker's calculations (the standard critical-edition benchmark) put Charles Wesley's output closer to 8,900–9,000 hymns and religious poems: over 4,500 published in his lifetime plus roughly 3,000 more surviving in manuscript. Baker calculated Wesley averaged 10 lines of verse a day for 50 years. A stronger number worth using instead, and one that directly reinforces Pawson's own "wrote on horseback, wherever he was" anecdote.
In most hymn books, you'll find more hymns by Charles Wesley than any other writer, with Isaac Watts a close second. And the last hymn writer Pawson wants to mention, Montgomery, has one they'd sing at communion that day as one of the devotional hymns.
Second, Sunday schools. If I asked you who started Sunday schools, I wonder what you'd say. If you know anything, you'd probably say Robert Raikes in Gloucester. And I tell you, you're wrong. Sunday schools were started by Hannah Ball in High Wycombe, a Methodist lady who lies buried in Stokin Church graveyard. I took my father to see her grave a few weeks ago. Hannah Ball started Sunday schools in a disused furniture factory in High Wycombe, as the result of correspondence with John Wesley. And it was Hannah Ball who suggested to Robert Raikes: why don't you do the same? And the extraordinary thing is there's a statue of Robert Raikes in Gloucester that says "founder of Sunday schools." Well, he copied the idea from a woman. That's one for the fairer sex.
Kit's note
Ball founding a Sunday school in High Wycombe in 1769, over a decade before Raikes's well-publicized Gloucester initiative (usually dated 1780), and her genuine correspondence with John Wesley, are both solidly documented, a genuinely under-known point Pawson gets right where most textbooks still credit Raikes alone. But the specific causal claim, that Ball personally suggested the idea to Raikes, isn't well evidenced. Most standard accounts describe Raikes's Gloucester effort arising more independently, from his prison-reform interests and contact with a Mrs. Meredith, who was already running a local school. Also worth noting: an even earlier precedent, a Sunday school recorded at St Mary's Church, Nottingham, in 1751, predating both Ball and Raikes. Raikes's true historical role was less inventing Sunday schools than nationally publicizing them, his 1783 account in his own Gloucester Journal is what actually triggered the movement's nationwide spread, a good illustration of how historical "firsts" often get misattributed to whoever controlled the printing press.
Third, social righteousness. When people get converted, they put society right. Poor relief began. Dispensaries distributing free medicine began. Orphanages began. Schools began. Prison reform, John Howard's work in prison reform goes directly back to the 18th-century revival. And above all, the outstanding example: William Wilberforce and his fight against slavery. The last letter John Wesley ever wrote was to William Wilberforce, urging him to complete the fight. If you ever go to Kingston-upon-Hull, go to the William Wilberforce Museum, that too came out of the revival.
Fourth, the tremendous spread of good literature. The Religious Tract Society was a direct result. So was the British and Foreign Bible Society. So were the commentaries of the great Bible teacher Thomas Scott.
And the final one, with which I close: missionary societies began, and the influence of Britain on the world for good spread. There had been some earlier attempts at missionary work, but it was at the end of the 18th century, as a result of that rising temperature, that it really got going. It was in 1792, let me get the date right, that the Baptist Missionary Society was formed. It was a Baptist who really set it going, a cobbler from Northampton, constructing a globe of the world out of offcuts of leather, praying for that world, particularly for India. That Northampton cobbler, converted, encouraged to preach in the Baptist churches of Northamptonshire, met with a group of others one day in Kettering in 1792, took a collection, the famous 13 pounds, two shillings and sixpence, quite a lot in those days, and started the Baptist Missionary Society. A year later they were on their way to India, beginning the great missionary work that followed. That was 1792. Three years later, 1795, the Anglicans, Congregationalists, and Presbyterians, not to be outdone, got together and started the London Missionary Society (LMS), which sent out Morrison to China, Livingstone to Africa, and many other famous missionaries. In 1796, not to be left behind, the Methodists founded the General Methodist Missionary Society. In 1799, the Anglicans decided to have one of their own, and the Church Missionary Society was started. And it was just in this period that the British and Foreign Bible Society began, all at the end of the century. This was the direct result of the Evangelical Revival of the 18th century. Who says that hot gospeling has no results? Who says the world isn't changed because people get excited about the Lord?
Kit's note
The Kettering founding is confirmed almost exactly: the meeting was 2 October 1792, in the back parlor of the widow of deacon Beeby Wallis, Kettering (a plaque still marks the site), and the subscription totaled £13 2s 6d (roughly £1,180–£1,300 in modern purchasing power), regarded as the founding act of the modern Protestant missionary movement. This is Pawson at his most precise and can be retold with full confidence. The 1796 Methodist and 1799 Anglican (Church Missionary Society) founding dates are also accurate.
Worth naming: that cobbler was William Carey, whom Pawson never names despite Carey being arguably the single most consequential figure in this whole section, author of the pivotal 1792 pamphlet An Enquiry into the Obligations of Christians to Use Means for the Conversion of the Heathen, which supplied the theological argument for the Kettering meeting. Also worth a precision: Carey was a shoemaker in Moulton, a village near Northampton (not Northampton town itself), and by the time of the Kettering meeting he was pastoring the Baptist church in Leicester, having already left shoemaking for full-time ministry, so "cobbler from Northampton" is close popular shorthand rather than a strict error.
The London Missionary Society (1795) claim telescopes two much later events into the founding year. Robert Morrison did not sail for China until 1807, twelve years after the LMS's founding. David Livingstone (born 1813, eighteen years after the LMS was founded) did not depart for Africa until 1840/41. Both were genuinely LMS missionaries, but citing them as part of the society's immediate 1790s missionary wave alongside Carey's 1793 departure is anachronistic, Livingstone in particular belongs to a different generation entirely, mid-19th century.
“Who Says Gospel Preaching Has No Results?”
Five practical results of the Revival
1
Hymnody
Watts, Doddridge, Cowper, Newton, and nearly 9,000 hymns from Charles Wesley
2
Sunday schools
Hannah Ball preceded Robert Raikes by over a decade
3
Social righteousness
Prison reform (Howard), abolition (Wilberforce), poor relief, orphanages
4
Literature
The Religious Tract Society, the British & Foreign Bible Society
5
Missionary societies
Baptist (1792, Carey), LMS (1795), Methodist (1796), CMS (1799)








Closing: "do it again, Lord"
The one lesson I want to draw out of the whole century, for tonight, is this: what a man believes will affect his behavior. Cold intellectualism, bad morals; hot gospel, and all this follows. Somebody has said that the early Methodists were like a cluster of chaste snowdrops growing on a foul rubbish heap. If you want to understand the Methodist emphasis on not drinking or gambling, you must understand the tradition goes back to the reality of the 18th century, they had to insist on it to get a man anywhere near the Lord. But they fought for it, and they cleaned England up.
A historian in France has said that if you want to understand why the French Revolution, and the enthronement of reason, and the anarchy that followed, did not spread to England, you must study the life of the Reverend John Wesley. That's an amazing tribute. God had his answer. Where man's cold reason, saying you've got to prove everything before you believe it, was killing religion dead, and when you kill religion, you kill morals, God raised up men who pointed to revelation, who pointed to a God giving us knowledge that science can neither prove nor disprove, and preached a gospel of supernatural miracle and a living God who could step in and change a life, and change a society. That neither nature nor human nature was governed by blind laws, but that both were governed by God, and that God could turn both to his eternal purposes.
Kit's note
The "cluster of chaste snowdrops on a foul rubbish heap" comparison could not be verified in any searchable source, despite multiple independent checks (against Isaac Taylor's Wesley and Methodism, Southey's Life of Wesley, and general Methodist-history quote collections). It has the flavor of 19th-century Methodist hagiographic prose, but should be treated as unverified, not a sourced quotation. And the "unnamed French historian" line is a real and important thesis, but shouldn't be presented as a settled, sourced direct quotation. This is a popularized version of the well-known Halévy thesis, proposed by French historian Élie Halévy (1870–1937) in his 1906 essay "La naissance du méthodisme en Angleterre," developed further in A History of the English People in the Nineteenth Century, arguing that Methodism's diffusion of personal discipline, sobriety, and individual (rather than political) transformation through the working and middle classes helped England avoid the revolutionary upheaval that convulsed France after 1789. The specific sentence Pawson quotes ("you must study the life of the Reverend John Wesley") couldn't be verified as Halévy's own verbatim wording in any source checked, it reads as a preacher's condensation of the broader thesis.
More importantly: this thesis is a genuinely live historiographical debate, not settled fact. The major counter-voice is E. P. Thompson, in The Making of the English Working Class (1963), chapter "The Chiliasm of Despair," arguing that Methodism functioned at least as much as social control and psychological compensation for political defeat among workers as it did a liberating or stabilizing civic force. Other historians note England's different social structure, aristocracy, and constitutional monarchy already made a French-style revolution politically and economically less likely, independent of Methodism's influence. A well-balanced piece should present Pawson's "amazing tribute" as a genuinely live historiographical debate, not settled history.
That's the message I wanted to bring you tonight. Great men of God were warmed up again, and brought the gospel of Jesus Christ to this land. And we still benefit from the effects of that revival, 200 years and more later.
Closing prayer. O God our Father, there is one prayer in all our hearts. Do it again, Lord. You are still the same God. Your arm is not shortened that you are not able to save today. We pray that in the decline of our society, with things on every hand that disturb us, with the revival even of that immoral literature of the 18th century again on the screen, with all this, Lord, do it again. Raise up men who will be fearless to preach Christ. Raise up such an army of evangelists, and men and women on fire for the Lord, that this country again may resound to the ring of the gospel, and we may see again an influence go out from this nation for good, in the whole of the rest of the world. O God, you have blessed us greatly in the past, but we cannot live in the past. We must live now, and we pray that in our day and generation we too may discover the forgiveness of sins in Christ Jesus, and then go out to tell others of the love that can forgive them. Amen.
Three centuries, three lectures, one continuous story: every time the Church was captured by the state, by German princes, by the Zurich council, by the English Parliament, the result was always war, prison, or a spiritual life gone cold. And every time, there were those who refused to let it happen: Anabaptists drowned for believing in voluntary baptism; Helwys dying in Newgate prison for writing the king to demand liberty of conscience for "heretics, Turks, and Jews"; Bunyan writing Pilgrim's Progress in a cell; Wesley riding a quarter of a million miles to carry the gospel to places the established pulpits had shut against him. By the close of the 18th century, the price of those three centuries had purchased what Scripture calls liberty of conscience, a freedom whose price, as Pawson repeats throughout, "is eternal vigilance," and one that can be lost as easily as it was once lost.
Part 5 of this series, God willing, will carry the story into the 19th century: from the revival that spread after Wesley and Whitefield, through the social and theological upheavals that would shape the Church heading into the 20th century.
